Changes in Interprofessional Practice During the COVID-19 Pandemic and the Effect on Patient Outcomes: A Retrospective Observational Study.

BACKGROUND: Changes in healthcare delivery were required during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of the approach to care of the COVID-19 patient on nursing sensitive indicators and nutrition therapy and the utilization of rehabilitation services during the first year of the pandemic in the acute care setting. METHOD: A retrospective study of 894 patients admitted with a COVID-19 diagnosis was conducted between March 2020 and February 2021 in 3-month cohorts. All charts were reviewed for general demographics and hospital data, nursing quality indicators, and nutritional and rehabilitation services for the first 30 days of admission. RESULTS: Differences in patient characteristics were noted among the cohorts. Variations were observed between time points in hospital-acquired pressure injury occurrence, with mechanical ventilation and proning being independent predictors of hospital-acquired pressure injuries. There were differences noted in the percentage of patients with a central line-associated bloodstream infection among the time points (P < .001), but there were no differences noted in catheter-associated urinary tract infections (P = .20). Overall, 15.5% had a malnutrition diagnosis, with most patients receiving 50% of prescribed calorie and protein needs. Rehabilitation services increased over time with these services being initiated earlier in the later cohorts (P < .001). DISCUSSION: The results of this study demonstrated the impact of the pandemic on outcomes in the areas of nursing, nutrition, and rehabilitation, which varied across quarterly cohorts as we learned and developed new practices and adapted to a novel pandemic.

Vascular Access Team Central Line Dressing Changes to Reduce Infection Risk: A Focused Two-Person Approach in High-Risk Patients.

Due to low compliance by bedside nursing with a central line-associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI) prevention bundle and increased CLABSI rates, a mandatory re-education initiative at a 1200-bed university-affiliated hospital was undertaken. Despite this, 2 units, housing high-risk immunocompromised patients, continued to experience increased CLABSI rates. A quality improvement before-after project design in these units replaced bedside nursing staff with 2 nurses from the vascular access team (VAT) to perform central vascular access device (CVAD) dressing changes routinely every 7 days or earlier if needed. The VAT consistently followed the bundled components, including use of chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG)-impregnated dressings on all patients unless an allergy was identified. In this case, a non-CHG transparent semipermeable membrane dressing was used. There were 884 patients with 14 211 CVAD days in the preimplementation period and 1136 patients with 14 225 CVAD days during the postimplementation period. The VAT saw 602 (53.0%) of the 1136 patients, performing at least 1 dressing change in 98% of the patients (n = 589). The combined CLABSI rate for the 2 units decreased from 2.53 per 1000 CVAD days preintervention to 1.62 per 1000 CVAD days postintervention. The estimated incidence rate ratio (IRR) for the intervention was 0.639, a 36.1% reduction in monthly CLABSI rates during the postimplementation period.

Original Research: Patient Perception of Fall Risk in the Acute Care Setting.

PURPOSE: Hospitals are implementing a variety of fall prevention programs to reduce the fall rates of hospitalized patients. But if patients don't perceive themselves to be at risk for falling and don't adhere to fall prevention strategies, such programs are likely to be less effective. The purpose of this study was to describe the perceptions of fall risk among hospitalized patients across four acute care specialty services. METHODS: One hundred patients who had been admitted to the study hospital and who had a Morse Fall Scale score over 45 were asked to complete the Patient Perception Questionnaire, a tool designed to explore a patient's confidence regarding their fall risk, fear of falling, and intention to engage in fall prevention activities. Morse Fall Scale scores were collected via retrospective chart review. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation coefficients, and independent sample t tests. RESULTS: Participants' mean age was 65 years; 52% were male, 48% female. Although all 100 participants were deemed at risk for falls per their Morse Fall Scale scores, only 55% considered themselves to be at such risk. As patients' confidence in their ability to perform mobility tasks increased, their intention to ask for help and fear of falling significantly decreased. Patients who had been admitted as the result of a fall demonstrated significantly lower confidence scores and higher fear scores. CONCLUSIONS: Patients who score high on fall risk assessments often don't perceive themselves to be at high risk for falling, and thus might not engage in fall prevention activities. Developing a fall risk assessment method that incorporates both a patient's physiological condition and their perception of their fall risk could help reduce fall rates in the acute care setting.

The relationship between response style and symptom reporting in cancer patients.

PURPOSE: Patient-reported outcomes are considered the gold standard for documenting treatment-related toxicities and cancer-related symptoms in the management of oncology patients. Poor concordance between patients and health care professionals (HCPs) on patients' symptoms has been documented. The purpose of this study is to examine the association between social desirability, a response style, and symptom reporting in a colorectal cancer clinic. METHODS: Patients being treated for colorectal cancer completed a social desirability measure and a symptom measure before their appointment in the oncology clinic. The HCP who saw the patient completed a symptom measure for the patient after the clinic visit. RESULTS: One hundred sixty-nine patients consented to participate in the study. The majority of the patients had stage 4 disease. There was a statistically significant positive correlation between social desirability and overall reported symptom burden. There was a statistically significant negative correlation between social desirability and concordance between the patient and the HCP on the patient's symptoms. Social desirability scores were stable over the course of 1 year. CONCLUSION: Sensitivity to social desirability effects seems to play an important role in patient self-report of symptoms. As social desirability is a stable quality, patients sensitive to it may be persistently at risk for undertreatment of symptoms due to limited symptom reporting.

One Year Post-Discharge Outcomes After Implementation of an ICU Early Mobility Protocol.

BACKGROUND: Early mobility benefits include improved strength, decreased length of stay (LOS), and delirium. The impact of an early mobility protocol on return to activities of daily living (ADL) is less studied. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to examine 1-year outcomes including ADL performance after the institution of an ICU early mobility protocol. METHODS: One year after the initiation of an early mobility protocol in 7 intensive care units (ICUs) at an academic medical center, patients with an ICU stay of 7 days or more were enrolled in a 1-year follow-up phone call study. Baseline demographic data included the following: average ICU mobility and highest ICU mobility level achieved (4 levels), highest ICU mobility score (10 levels) at ICU admission, ICU discharge (DC), hospital DC, LOS, and delirium positive days. At 4 time points after DC (1, 3, 6, 12 months), patients were contacted regarding current residence, employment, readmissions, and current level of ADL from the Katz ADL (scored 0-6) and Lawton instrumental ADL scales (scored 0-8). RESULTS: A convenience sample of 106 patients was enrolled with a mean age of 58 ± 15.4 years, ICU LOS of 18 ± 11.5 days, and hospital LOS of 37.5 ± 31 days; 58 (55%) were male; 4 expired before DC. Mobility results included mean mobility level of 1.6 ± 0.8, mean highest mobility level 3.3 ± 0.9; ICU mobility score was 5.9 ± 2.4 at time of ICU DC and 7.3 ± 2.5 at hospital DC. Katz ADL scores improved from 4.8 at 1 month to 5.6 at 12 months (P = .002), and Lawton IADL scores improved from 4.2 to 6.6 (P < .001). Mobility scores were predictors of 1 month Katz (P = .004) and Lawton (P < .001) scores. None of the mobility levels or scores were predictive for readmissions. Most patients were not working before admission, and not all returned to work. Days positive for delirium were predictive of 1 month Katz and Lawton (P = .014, .002) scores. Impact of delirium was gone by 1 year. DISCUSSION: In this critically ill patient population followed for 1 year, ICU mobility positively impacted return to ADLs and improved ADLs over time but not readmissions. Delirium positive days decreased ADL scores, but the effect diminished over time.

Accuracy of Measuring Bladder Volumes With Ultrasound and Bladder Scanning.

BACKGROUND: Removal of urinary catheters depends on accurate noninvasive measurements of bladder volume. Patients with acute kidney injury often have low bladder volumes/ascites, possibly causing measurement inaccuracy. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the accuracy of bladder volumes measured with bladder scanning and 2-dimensional ultrasound (US) compared with urinary catheterization among different types of clinicians. METHODS: Prospective correlational descriptive study of 73 adult critical care patients with low urine output receiving hemodialysis or unable to void. Bladder volumes were independently measured by (1) a physician and an advanced practice registered nurse using US, (2) an advanced practice registered nurse and a bedside nurse using bladder scanning, and (3) urinary catheterization (cath). Bland-Altman and χ2 analyses were conducted. RESULTS: Mean (SD) cath volume was 171.7 (269.7) mL (range, 0-1100 mL). Abdominal fluid was observed in 28% of patients. Bias was -1.3 mL for US vs cath and 3.3 mL for bladder scanning vs cath. For patients with abdominal fluid and cath volume less than 150 mL, decisions to not catheterize patients were accurate more often when based on US measurements (97%-100%) than when based on bladder scanning measurements (86%-89%; P = .02). In patients with cath volume of 300 mL or more, decisions to catheterize patients were accurate more often when based on bladder scanning measurements (94%-100%) than when based on horizontal US measurements (50%-56%; P = .001). CONCLUSIONS: Bladder volume can be measured accurately with bladder scanning or US, but abdominal fluid remains a confounding factor limiting accuracy of bladder scanning.

Implementation of an Interdisciplinary AACN Early Mobility Protocol.

BACKGROUND: Increasing mobility in the intensive care unit is an important part of the ABCDEF bundle. Objective To examine the impact of an interdisciplinary mobility protocol in 7 specialty intensive care units that previously implemented other bundle components. METHODS: A staggered quality improvement project using the American Association of Critical-Care Nurses mobility protocol was conducted. In phase 1, data were collected on patients with intensive care unit stays of 24 hours or more for 2 months before and 2 months after protocol implementation. In phase 2, data were collected on a random sample of 20% of patients with an intensive care unit stay of 3 days or more for 2 months before and 12 months after protocol implementation. RESULTS: The study population consisted of 1266 patients before and 1420 patients after implementation in phase 1 and 258 patients before and 1681 patients after implementation in phase 2. In phase 1, the mean (SD) mobility level increased in all intensive care units, from 1.45 (1.03) before to 1.64 (1.03) after implementation (P < .001). Mean (SD) ICU Mobility Scale scores increased on initial evaluation from 4.4 (2.8) to 5.0 (2.8) (P = .01) and at intensive care unit discharge from 6.4 (2.5) to 6.8 (2.3) (P = .04). Complications occurred in 0.2% of patients mobilized. In phase 2, 84% of patients had out-of-bed activity after implementation. The time to achieve mobility levels 2 to 4 decreased (P = .05). Intensive care unit length of stay decreased significantly in both phases. CONCLUSIONS: Implementing the American Association of Critical-Care early mobility protocol in intensive care units with ABCDEF components in place can increase mobility levels, decrease length of stay, and decrease delirium with minimal complications.

The Use of Physical Therapy ICU Assessments to Predict Discharge Home.

OBJECTIVES: To establish cutoff values for making recommendations for discharge to the home setting using standardized physical therapy assessments. DESIGN: Retrospective study. SETTING: Five ICUs at a large academic medical center. PATIENTS: 1,203 ICU patients. INTERVENTION: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: The Functional Status Score for the ICU and the ICU Mobility Scale were collected during the initial physical therapy assessment, at ICU discharge, and prior to hospital discharge. The Activity Measure for Post-Acute Care-Inpatient Mobility Short Form "6 clicks" was only collected during the initial physical therapy assessment. Receiver Operating Characteristic curves were used to determine a potential cutoff value for discharge home. The Receiver Operating Characteristic was adjusted for ICU and hospital length of stay along with mobility status prior to hospital admission. Cutoff values were then determined by using Youden's Index. Sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, negative predictive value, and accuracy were calculated based on these cut off values. The Functional Status Score for the ICU at ICU discharge was the best predictor of a discharge to the home setting in patients who had an ICU admission. The area under the curve for the Functional Status Score for the ICU at ICU discharge was 0.80. A Functional Status Score for the ICU score at ICU discharge of 19 or higher predicted discharge to home with a sensitivity of 82.9% and specificity of 73.6% CONCLUSIONS:: The Functional Status Score for the ICU at ICU discharge provided the best accuracy for making a timely recommendation for discharge home in patients who had an ICU admission.

Failure to meet aerobic fitness standards among urban elementary students.

The aim of this study was to explore the relationship of aerobic fitness with the elementary school environment and student characteristics among 4th and 5th grade children attending urban public schools in St. Louis, MO, USA. This cross-sectional study was conducted during 2012-2015 and included 2381 children (mean age 10.5 y) who completed the FITNESSGRAM® 20-m Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run. Healthy Fitness Zone (HFZ) was defined according to FITNESSGRAM® aerobic capacity criteria. Other student-level variables included age, race, National School Lunch Program eligibility, BMI z-score, weight status, and daily pedometer steps. School environment variables included playground features and playground safety, physical education and recess practices, and school census tract data on vacant houses and median household income. Bivariate analyses with sex stratification were used to identify student-level and school-level predictors of failure to achieve the aerobic HFZ; predictors were then included in a multivariable logistic regression model. Failure to meet the aerobic HFZ was observed among 33% of boys and 57% of girls. School environment was not predictive, but higher age and fewer daily steps were: each additional year of age was associated with 41% higher odds of failing to meet the aerobic HFZ among boys and 100% higher odds among girls. Conversely, each additional 1000 daily steps was associated with 15% (boys) and 13% (girls) lower odds of failure. Obesity posed a 60% higher risk of failure to meet HFZ among girls. These results highlight the importance of childhood physical activity opportunities, especially for girls residing in low-resource areas.

Discrepancies in measuring bladder volumes with bedside ultrasound and bladder scanning in the intensive care unit: A pilot study.

OBJECTIVE: Intensive care unit patients are at risk for catheter-associated urinary tract infection. Earlier removal of catheters may be possible with accurate measurement of bladder volume. The purpose was to compare measured bladder volumes with bedside ultrasound, bladder scanner, and urine volume. DESIGN: Prospective correlational descriptive study. SETTING: Surgical/trauma intensive care unit and medical intensive care unit. PATIENTS: Renal dialysis patients with less than 100 ml of urine in 24 h prior to urinary catheter removal and patients with suspected catheter obstruction. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: A physician trained in ultrasound and an advanced practice registered nurse trained in bladder scanning measured bladder volume; each blinded to the other's measurement. Device used first (ultrasound or bladder scanner) alternated daily. The intensive care unit team determined need for intermittent catheterization or treatment for suspected obstruction. Fifty-one measurements from 13 patients were obtained with results reported in milliliters. Ultrasound measurements were a mean volume of 72.1 ± 127 (range: 1.7-666) and the bladder scanner measurements were 117 ± 131 (0-529). On six occasions in five dialysis patients, urine volume measurement was available. The mean difference in ultrasound-urine volume mean difference was 0.5 ± 37.8 (range: -68 to 38.2) and the bladder scanner-urine volume was 132 ± 167 (-72 to 397). Two patients with suspected catheter obstructions had ultrasound, bladder scanner, urine volume measurements, respectively: (1) 539, 51, >300 (began voiding before catheter replaced); (2) 666, 68, 1000 with catheter replacement. Conditions leading to greatest differences were obesity, indwelling catheter and ascites. CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate the inaccuracy of the bladder scanner. Ultrasound measurements appear more accurate. To remove urinary catheters in patients with minimal to low urine output, serial ultrasound measurements can be used to monitor bladder volumes and return of renal function.

How Segregation Makes Us Fat: Food Behaviors and Food Environment as Mediators of the Relationship Between Residential Segregation and Individual Body Mass Index.

OBJECTIVES: Racial residential segregation affects food landscapes that dictate residents' food environments and is associated with obesity risk factors, including individual dietary patterns and behaviors. We examine if food behaviors and environments mediate the association between segregation and body mass index (BMI). METHODS: Non-Hispanic Whites and Blacks living in the St. Louis and Kansas City metro regions from 2012 to 2013 were surveyed on dietary behaviors, food environment, and BMI (n = 1,412). These data were combined with the CDC's modified retail food environment index and 2012 American Community Survey data to calculate racial segregation using various evenness and exposure indices. Multi-level mediation analyses were conducted to determine if dietary behavior and food environment mediate the association between racial residential segregation and individual BMI. RESULTS: The positive association between racial segregation and individual BMI is partially mediated by dietary behaviors and fully mediated by food environments. CONCLUSION: Racial segregation (evenness and exposure) is associated with BMI, mediated by dietary behaviors and food environment. Elements of the food environment, which form the context for dietary behaviors, are potential targets for interventions to reduce obesity in residentially segregated areas.

Comparison of nasal and forehead oximetry accuracy and pressure injury in critically ill patients.

BACKGROUND: In critically ill patients, clinicians can have difficulty obtaining accurate oximetry measurements. OBJECTIVE: To compare the accuracy of nasal alar and forehead sensor measurements and incidence of pressure injury. METHODS: 43 patients had forehead and nasal alar sensors applied. Arterial samples were obtained at 0, 24, and 120 hours. Oxygen saturations measured by co-oximetry were compared to sensor values. Skin was assessed every 8 hours. RESULTS: Oxygen saturations ranged from 69.8%-97.8%, with 18% of measures < 90%. Measurements were within 3% of co-oximetry values for 54% of nasal alar compared to 35% of forehead measurements. Measurement failures occurred in 6% for nasal alar and 22% for forehead. Three patients developed a pressure injury with the nasal alar sensor and 13 patients developed a pressure injury with the forehead sensor (χ2 = 7.68; p = .006). CONCLUSIONS: In this group of patients with decreased perfusion, nasal alar sensors provided a potential alternative for continuous monitoring of oxygen saturation.

Colorectal Cancer Screening Uptake's Association With Psychosocial and Sociodemographic Factors Among Homeless Blacks and Whites.

The homeless represent an extremely disadvantaged population that fare worse than minority groups in access to preventive services and health, and minority groups fare worse than Whites. Early detection screening for colorectal cancer (CRC) saves lives, but empirical data about CRC screening practices among homeless Blacks and Whites are limited. Psychosocial risk factors may serve as a barrier to CRC screening completion among homeless Black individuals. A secondary data analysis of a randomized clinical trial for smoking cessation among homeless smokers was conducted to determine whether psychosocial factors and sociodemographic factors were more highly associated with CRC screening uptake among homeless Blacks than among their White counterparts. Study participants ( N = 124) were surveyed on their CRC screening status, sociodemographic variables, and psychosocial correlate measures including anxiety, depression, hopelessness, depression severity, and perceived stress. Associations between these factors were examined with logistic regression. White participants who were currently disabled/unable to work were 6.2 times more likely to ever receive CRC screening than those who were employed. Black participants with public health insurance coverage were 90% less likely to ever obtain CRC screening than participants without health insurance. Black and White participants had similar levels of anxiety symptoms, depression, and hopelessness, yet depression was the only psychosocial variable negatively associated with CRC screening status. Black and White participants with symptoms of depression were 58% less likely to complete screening than those without depression. Mental health risk and sociodemographic factors may serve as barriers to CRC screening among homeless Blacks and Whites.

Body mass index and death rate of colorectal cancer among a national cohort of U.S. adults.

Substantial evidence suggests that increasing adiposity is associated with an increased death rate of colorectal cancer, but no studies were conducted among national representative populations in the United States. The current study examined the death rate across BMI levels in 7,016 adults who participated in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey in 1971-1975. BMI categories were defined as normal (18.5-24.9 kg/m(2)), overweight (25-29.9), and obese (≥30). A total of 519 cancer deaths were identified during a 17-yr follow-up with 118,998 person-years. No significantly increased death rates of total cancers, lung, breast, and prostate cancer were observed among participants with an increased BMI. However, colorectal cancer death rates were 0.39, 0.68, and 0.96/1,000 person-years, respectively, for normal weight, overweight, and obese (P value for log-rank trend test < 0.001), and the corresponding adjusted hazard ratios [95% confidence intervals (CI)] were 1.00 (reference), 1.25 (95% CI = 0.72-2.19), and 2.04 (1.08-3.83), respectively. No gender difference of the association was identified. The authors conclude that a significantly increased death rate of colorectal cancer was associated with excess body weight. The current study is an addition to the expanding body of literature indicating an increased risk of colorectal cancer development among the obese.

Dietary protein and protein-rich food in relation to severely depressed mood: A 10 year follow-up of a national cohort.

High-protein diets are advocated to facilitate weight loss, and improve cardiovascular risk factors, but data on psychiatric effects are lacking. We analyzed data from 1947 men and 2909 women aged 25-74 years when examined in 1971-1975 as the baseline of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Follow-Up Study. The amounts of macronutrients were obtained from a 24-hour recall, and frequencies of eating protein-rich foods were estimated using a 3-month food frequency questionnaire. Severely depressed mood (SDM) was defined as Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale score ≥ 22 or taking anti-depression medication after an average of 10.6 years of follow-up. A significant gender difference was observed in the prevalence of SDM and its association with protein intake. The weighted prevalence of SDM was 11.45 (SE = 0.96) % and 17.45(1.05) % respectively among men and women. Among men, the relative risk (RRs) of SDM were 1.00, 0.46 (95% CI = 0.22-0.99) and 0.38 (0.16-0.92) respectively for the lowest, middle and highest third protein intake (p for trend=0.0347). Among women, the RRs were 1.00, 1.93 (1.23-3.08) and 2.47 (1.24-4.90) respectively with lowest, middle and the highest third intakes (p for trend = 0.0023). These estimates were adjusted for cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, BMI, socioeconomic status at baseline, and the history of cancer, stroke, heart attack and diabetes assessed at follow-up interview. The authors concluded that increased intake of protein demonstrated a protective effect among men but a deleterious effect among women.

Legume consumption and severe depressed mood, the modifying roles of gender and menopausal status.

OBJECTIVE: Legumes have been recommended as staple foods in the anticipation of disease prevention. However, the scientific evidence of their benefits, particularly on mental well-being, remains preliminary. We longitudinally assessed the association between legume consumption and the risk of severe depressed mood (SDM) among a national cohort. DESIGN: The study included adults aged 25-74 years who were examined in 1971-1975 as a part of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Legume consumption at baseline was obtained from a 3-month FFQ and categorised as infrequent (<1 time/week), moderate (1-2 times/week) and frequent (> or = 3 times/week). SDM was defined as Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale score > or = 22 or taking anti-depression medication after an average of 10.6 years of follow-up (from 8.0 to 12.5 years). RESULTS: Among women, the proportion of individuals with SDM was 17.75 %. For premenopausal women (n 1778), a significant linear trend of deleterious effect from legume consumption was observed (P for trend = 0.0148). The relative risks (RR) for infrequent, moderate and frequent consumptions were 1 (reference), 1.24 (95 % CI = 0.91, 1.70) and 1.75 (1.12, 2.75), respectively. However, moderate consumption showed a significant protective effect (RR = 0.52 (0.27, 1.00)) among women undergoing the menopausal transition (n 454). No association was obtained from either postmenopausal women (n 601) or men (n 2036). CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that gender and menopausal status were effect modifiers of the association between legume consumption and SDM. Detrimental effects of frequent consumption of legumes may exist among premenopausal women; moderate consumption, however, may protect perimenopausal women against SDM.

Using Wavelet-Based Functional Mixed Models to Characterize Population Heterogeneity in Accelerometer Profiles: A Case Study.

We present a case study illustrating the challenges of analyzing accelerometer data taken from a sample of children participating in an intervention study designed to increase physical activity. An accelerometer is a small device worn on the hip that records the minute-by-minute activity levels of the child throughout the day for each day it is worn. The resulting data are irregular functions characterized by many peaks representing short bursts of intense activity. We model these data using the wavelet-based functional mixed model. This approach incorporates multiple fixed effect and random effect functions of arbitrary form, the estimates of which are adaptively regularized using wavelet shrinkage. The method yields posterior samples for all functional quantities of the model, which can be used to perform various types of Bayesian inference and prediction. In our case study, a high proportion of the daily activity profiles are incomplete, i.e. have some portion of the profile missing, so cannot be directly modeled using the previously described method. We present a new method for stochastically imputing the missing data that allows us to incorporate these incomplete profiles in our analysis. Our approach borrows strength from both the observed measurements within the incomplete profiles and from other profiles, from the same child as well as other children with similar covariate levels, while appropriately propagating the uncertainty of the imputation throughout all subsequent inference. We apply this method to our case study, revealing some interesting insights into children's activity patterns. We point out some strengths and limitations of using this approach to analyze accelerometer data.

Depressive symptoms and risk of type 2 diabetes in women.

OBJECTIVE: To explore the relationship between depressive symptoms and incidence of type 2 diabetes in women. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We conducted an analysis of 72,178 female nurses aged 45-72 years who did not have diagnosed diabetes and who answered the Medical Outcomes Study 36-Item Short-Form Health Status Survey (SF-36) at baseline in 1992. We calculated relative risks (RR) of type 2 diabetes for women with presence of depressive symptoms (i.e., Five-Item Mental Health Index [MHI-5] score >52). RESULTS: During 4 years of follow-up (282,317 person-years), 973 incident cases of type 2 diabetes were documented. Age-adjusted RR of developing type 2 diabetes for women with presence of depressive symptoms was 1.55 (95% CI 1.27-1.90). Additional adjustment for BMI resulted in a RR of developing type 2 diabetes of 1.36 (1.11-1.67). The multivariate RR of developing type 2 diabetes was 1.22 (1.00-1.50). After excluding women diagnosed with diabetes between 1992 and 1994, 472 incident cases of type 2 diabetes were documented for the follow-up period from 1994 to 1996 (148,889 person-years). The multivariate RR of developing type 2 diabetes for women with depressive symptoms was 1.29 (0.96-1.72). CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that depressive symptoms are associated with a modest increase in the risk of type 2 diabetes.