An evaluation of the "GGP" personal samplers under semi-volatile aerosols: sampling losses and their implication on occupational risk assessment.

Semi-volatile (SV) aerosols still represent an important challenge to occupational hygienists due to toxicological and sampling issues. Particularly problematic is the sampling of hazardous SV that are present in both particulate and vapour phases at a workplace. In this study we investigate the potential evaporation losses of SV aerosols when using off-line filter-adsorber personal samplers. Furthermore, we provide experimental data showing the extent of the evaporation loss that can bias the workplace risk assessment. An experimental apparatus consisting of an aerosol generator, a flow tube and an aerosol monitoring and sampling system was set up inside a temperature controlled chamber. Aerosols from three n-alkanes were generated, diluted with nitrogen and sampled using on-line and off-line filter-adsorber methods. Parallel measurements using the on-line and off-line methods were conducted to quantify the bias induced by filter sampling. Additionally, two mineral oils of different volatility were spiked on filters and monitored for evaporation depending on the samplers flow rate. No significant differences between the on-line and off-line methods were detected for the sum of particles and vapour. The filter-adsorber method however tended to underestimate up to 100% of the particle mass, especially for the more volatile compounds and lower concentrations. The off-line sampling method systematically returned lower particle and higher vapour values, an indication for particle evaporation losses. We conclude that using only filter sampling for the assessment of semi-volatiles may considerably underestimate the presence of the particulate phase due to evaporation. Thus, this underestimation can have a negative impact on the occupational risk assessment if the evaporated particle mass is no longer quantified.

The impact of blood on liver metabolite profiling - a combined metabolomic and proteomic approach.

Metabolomics has entered the well-established omic sciences as it is an indispensable information resource to achieve a global picture of biological systems. The aim of the present study was to estimate the influence of blood removal from mice liver as part of sample preparation for metabolomic and proteomic studies. For this purpose, perfused mice liver tissue (i.e. with blood removed) and unperfused mice liver tissue (i.e. containing blood) were compared by two-dimensional gas chromatography time of flight mass spectrometry (GC × GC-TOFMS) for the metabolomic part, and by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for the proteomic part. Our data showed significant differences between the unperfused and perfused liver tissue samples. Furthermore, we also observed an overlap of blood and tissue metabolite profiles in our data, suggesting that the perfusion of liver tissue prior to analysis is beneficial for an accurate metabolic profile of this organ.

BZLF1 governs CpG-methylated chromatin of Epstein-Barr Virus reversing epigenetic repression.

Epigenetic mechanisms are essential for the regulation of all genes in mammalian cells but transcriptional repression including DNA methylation are also major epigenetic mechanisms of defense inactivating potentially harmful pathogens. Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV), however, has evolved to take advantage of CpG methylated DNA to regulate its own biphasic life cycle. We show here that latent EBV DNA has an extreme composition of methylated CpG dinucleotides with a bimodal distribution of unmethylated or fully methylated DNA at active latent genes or completely repressed lytic promoters, respectively. We find this scenario confirmed in primary EBV-infected memory B cells in vivo. Extensive CpG methylation of EBV's DNA argues for a very restricted gene expression during latency. Above-average nucleosomal occupancy, repressive histone marks, and Polycomb-mediated epigenetic silencing further shield early lytic promoters from activation during latency. The very tight repression of viral lytic genes must be overcome when latent EBV enters its lytic phase and supports de novo virus synthesis in infected cells. The EBV-encoded and AP-1 related transcription factor BZLF1 overturns latency and initiates virus synthesis in latently infected cells. Paradoxically, BZLF1 preferentially binds to CpG-methylated motifs in key viral promoters for their activation. Upon BZLF1 binding, we find nucleosomes removed, Polycomb repression lost, and RNA polymerase II recruited to the activated early promoters promoting efficient lytic viral gene expression. Surprisingly, DNA methylation is maintained throughout this phase of viral reactivation and is no hindrance to active transcription of extensively CpG methylated viral genes as thought previously. Thus, we identify BZLF1 as a pioneer factor that reverses epigenetic silencing of viral DNA to allow escape from latency and report on a new paradigm of gene regulation.

Open chromatin structures regulate the efficiencies of pre-RC formation and replication initiation in Epstein-Barr virus.

Whether or not metazoan replication initiates at random or specific but flexible sites is an unsolved question. The lack of sequence specificity in origin recognition complex (ORC) DNA binding complicates genome-scale chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP)-based studies. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) persists as chromatinized minichromosomes that are replicated by the host replication machinery. We used EBV to investigate the link between zones of pre-replication complex (pre-RC) assembly, replication initiation, and micrococcal nuclease (MNase) sensitivity at different cell cycle stages in a genome-wide fashion. The dyad symmetry element (DS) of EBV's latent origin, a well-established and very efficient pre-RC assembly region, served as an internal control. We identified 64 pre-RC zones that correlate spatially with 57 short nascent strand (SNS) zones. MNase experiments revealed that pre-RC and SNS zones were linked to regions of increased MNase sensitivity, which is a marker of origin strength. Interestingly, although spatially correlated, pre-RC and SNS zones were characterized by different features. We propose that pre-RCs are formed at flexible but distinct sites, from which only a few are activated per single genome and cell cycle.

Stage-specific histone modification profiles reveal global transitions in the Xenopus embryonic epigenome.

Vertebrate embryos are derived from a transitory pool of pluripotent cells. By the process of embryonic induction, these precursor cells are assigned to specific fates and differentiation programs. Histone post-translational modifications are thought to play a key role in the establishment and maintenance of stable gene expression patterns underlying these processes. While on gene level histone modifications are known to change during differentiation, very little is known about the quantitative fluctuations in bulk histone modifications during development. To investigate this issue we analysed histones isolated from four different developmental stages of Xenopus laevis by mass spectrometry. In toto, we quantified 59 modification states on core histones H3 and H4 from blastula to tadpole stages. During this developmental period, we observed in general an increase in the unmodified states, and a shift from histone modifications associated with transcriptional activity to transcriptionally repressive histone marks. We also compared these naturally occurring patterns with the histone modifications of murine ES cells, detecting large differences in the methylation patterns of histone H3 lysines 27 and 36 between pluripotent ES cells and pluripotent cells from Xenopus blastulae. By combining all detected modification transitions we could cluster their patterns according to their embryonic origin, defining specific histone modification profiles (HMPs) for each developmental stage. To our knowledge, this data set represents the first compendium of covalent histone modifications and their quantitative flux during normogenesis in a vertebrate model organism. The HMPs indicate a stepwise maturation of the embryonic epigenome, which may be causal to the progressing restriction of cellular potency during development.

On the causes of outliers in Affymetrix GeneChip data.

We describe various types of outliers seen in Affymetrix GeneChip data. We have been able to utilise the data in the Gene Expression Omnibus to screen GeneChips across a range of scales, from single probes, to spatially adjacent fractions of arrays, to whole arrays, to whole experiments. In this review we describe a number of causes for why some reported intensities might be misleading on GeneChips.

The use of Affymetrix GeneChips as a tool for studying alternative forms of RNA.

We are developing a computational pipeline to use surveys of Affymetrix GeneChips as a discovery tool for unravelling some of the biology associated with post-transcriptional processing of RNA. This work involves the integration of a number of bioinformatics resources, from comparing annotations to processing images to determining the structure of transcripts. The rapidly growing datasets of GeneChips available to the community puts us in a strong position to discover novel biology about post-transcriptional processing, and should enable us to determine the mechanisms by which some groups of genes make co-ordinated changes in their production of isoforms.

Widespread existence of uncorrelated probe intensities from within the same probeset on Affymetrix GeneChips.

We have developed a computational pipeline to analyse large surveys of Affymetrix GeneChips, for example NCBI's Gene Expression Omnibus. GEO samples data for many organisms, tissues and phenotypes. Because of this experimental diversity, any observed correlations between probe intensities can be associated either with biology that is robust, such as common co-expression, or with systematic biases associated with the GeneChip technology. Our bioinformatics pipeline integrates the mapping of probes to exons, quality control checks on each GeneChip which identifies flaws in hybridization quality, and the mining of correlations in intensities between groups of probes. The output from our pipeline has enabled us to identify systematic biases in GeneChip data. We are also able to use the pipeline as a discovery tool for biology. We have discovered that in the majority of cases, Affymetrix probesets on Human GeneChips do not measure one unique block of transcription. Instead we see numerous examples of outlier probes. Our study has also identified that in a number of probesets the mismatch probes are an informative diagnostic of expression, rather than providing a measure of background contamination. We report evidence for systematic biases in GeneChip technology associated with probe-probe interactions. We also see signatures associated with post-transcriptional processing of RNA, such as alternative polyadenylation.

An overview of image-processing methods for Affymetrix GeneChips.

We present an overview of image-processing methods for Affymetrix GeneChips. All GeneChips are affected to some extent by spatially coherent defects and image processing has a number of potential impacts on the downstream analysis of GeneChip data. Fortunately, there are now a number of robust and accurate algorithms, which identify the most disabling defects. One group of algorithms concentrate on the transformation from the original hybridisation DAT image to the representative CEL file. Another set uses dedicated pattern recognition routines to detect different types of hybridisation defect in replicates. A third type exploits the information provided by public repositories of GeneChips (such as GEO). The use of these algorithms improves the sensitivity of GeneChips, and should be a prerequisite for studies in which there are only few probes per relevant biological signal, such as exon arrays and SNP chips.