NBS1-CtIP-mediated DNA end resection suppresses cGAS binding to micronuclei.

Cyclic guanosine monophosphate-adenosine monophosphate synthase (cGAS) is activated in cells with defective DNA damage repair and signaling (DDR) factors, but a direct role for DDR factors in regulating cGAS activation in response to micronuclear DNA is still poorly understood. Here, we provide novel evidence that Nijmegen breakage syndrome 1 (NBS1) protein, a well-studied DNA double-strand break (DSB) sensor-in coordination with Ataxia Telangiectasia Mutated (ATM), a protein kinase, and Carboxy-terminal binding protein 1 interacting protein (CtIP), a DNA end resection factor-functions as an upstream regulator that prevents cGAS from binding micronuclear DNA. When NBS1 binds to micronuclear DNA via its fork-head-associated domain, it recruits CtIP and ATM via its N- and C-terminal domains, respectively. Subsequently, ATM stabilizes NBS1's interaction with micronuclear DNA, and CtIP converts DSB ends into single-strand DNA ends; these two key events prevent cGAS from binding micronuclear DNA. Additionally, by using a cGAS tripartite system, we show that cells lacking NBS1 not only recruit cGAS to a major fraction of micronuclear DNA but also activate cGAS in response to these micronuclear DNA. Collectively, our results underscore how NBS1 and its binding partners prevent cGAS from binding micronuclear DNA, in addition to their classical functions in DDR signaling.

Carbon Ion Radiotherapy in the Management of Hepatocellular Carcinoma.

Localized hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) that is unresectable and non-transplantable can be treated by several liver-directed therapies. External beam radiation therapy (EBRT) is an increasingly accepted and widely utilized treatment modality in this setting. Accelerated charged particles such as proton beam therapy (PBT) and carbon ion radiation therapy (CIRT) offer technological advancements over conventional photon radiotherapy. In this review, we summarize the distinct advantages of CIRT use for HCC treatment, focusing on physical and biological attributes, and outline dosimetric and treatment planning caveats. Based on these considerations, we posit that HCC may be among the best indications for use of CIRT, as it allows for maximizing tumoricidal doses to the target volume while minimizing the dose to the organs at risk.

Mitochondrial fatty acid utilization increases chromatin oxidative stress in cardiomyocytes.

The inability of adult mammalian cardiomyocytes to proliferate underpins the development of heart failure following myocardial injury. Although the newborn mammalian heart can spontaneously regenerate for a short period of time after birth, this ability is lost within the first week after birth in mice, partly due to increased mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production which results in oxidative DNA damage and activation of DNA damage response. This increase in ROS levels coincides with a postnatal switch from anaerobic glycolysis to fatty acid (FA) oxidation by cardiac mitochondria. However, to date, a direct link between mitochondrial substrate utilization and oxidative DNA damage is lacking. Here, we generated ROS-sensitive fluorescent sensors targeted to different subnuclear compartments (chromatin, heterochromatin, telomeres, and nuclear lamin) in neonatal rat ventricular cardiomyocytes, which allowed us to determine the spatial localization of ROS in cardiomyocyte nuclei upon manipulation of mitochondrial respiration. Our results demonstrate that FA utilization by the mitochondria induces a significant increase in ROS detection at the chromatin level compared to other nuclear compartments. These results indicate that mitochondrial metabolic perturbations directly alter the nuclear redox status and that the chromatin appears to be particularly sensitive to the prooxidant effect of FA utilization by the mitochondria.

Immunomodulatory Effects of Radiotherapy.

Radiation therapy (RT), an integral component of curative treatment for many malignancies, can be administered via an increasing array of techniques. In this review, we summarize the properties and application of different types of RT, specifically, conventional therapy with x-rays, stereotactic body RT, and proton and carbon particle therapies. We highlight how low-linear energy transfer (LET) radiation induces simple DNA lesions that are efficiently repaired by cells, whereas high-LET radiation causes complex DNA lesions that are difficult to repair and that ultimately enhance cancer cell killing. Additionally, we discuss the immunogenicity of radiation-induced tumor death, elucidate the molecular mechanisms by which radiation mounts innate and adaptive immune responses and explore strategies by which we can increase the efficacy of these mechanisms. Understanding the mechanisms by which RT modulates immune signaling and the key players involved in modulating the RT-mediated immune response will help to improve therapeutic efficacy and to identify novel immunomodulatory drugs that will benefit cancer patients undergoing targeted RT.

Mitochondrial Substrate Utilization Regulates Cardiomyocyte Cell Cycle Progression.

The neonatal mammalian heart is capable of regeneration for a brief window of time after birth. However, this regenerative capacity is lost within the first week of life, which coincides with a postnatal shift from anaerobic glycolysis to mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, particularly towards fatty-acid utilization. Despite the energy advantage of fatty-acid beta-oxidation, cardiac mitochondria produce elevated rates of reactive oxygen species when utilizing fatty acids, which is thought to play a role in cardiomyocyte cell-cycle arrest through induction of DNA damage and activation of DNA-damage response (DDR) pathway. Here we show that inhibiting fatty-acid utilization promotes cardiomyocyte proliferation in the postnatatal heart. First, neonatal mice fed fatty-acid deficient milk showed prolongation of the postnatal cardiomyocyte proliferative window, however cell cycle arrest eventually ensued. Next, we generated a tamoxifen-inducible cardiomyocyte-specific, pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 4 (PDK4) knockout mouse model to selectively enhance oxidation of glycolytically derived pyruvate in cardiomyocytes. Conditional PDK4 deletion resulted in an increase in pyruvate dehydrogenase activity and consequently an increase in glucose relative to fatty-acid oxidation. Loss of PDK4 also resulted in decreased cardiomyocyte size, decreased DNA damage and expression of DDR markers and an increase in cardiomyocyte proliferation. Following myocardial infarction, inducible deletion of PDK4 improved left ventricular function and decreased remodelling. Collectively, inhibition of fatty-acid utilization in cardiomyocytes promotes proliferation, and may be a viable target for cardiac regenerative therapies.

Dysfunctional telomeres trigger cellular senescence mediated by cyclic GMP-AMP synthase.

Defective DNA damage response (DDR) signaling is a common mechanism that initiates and maintains the cellular senescence phenotype. Dysfunctional telomeres activate DDR signaling, genomic instability, and cellular senescence, but the links among these events remains unclear. Here, using an array of biochemical and imaging techniques, including a highly regulatable CRISPR/Cas9 strategy to induce DNA double strand breaks specifically in the telomeres, ChIP, telomere immunofluorescence, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), micronuclei imaging, and the telomere shortest length assay (TeSLA), we show that chromosome mis-segregation due to imperfect DDR signaling in response to dysfunctional telomeres creates a preponderance of chromatin fragments in the cytosol, which leads to a premature senescence phenotype. We found that this phenomenon is caused not by telomere shortening, but by cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS) recognizing cytosolic chromatin fragments and then activating the stimulator of interferon genes (STING) cytosolic DNA-sensing pathway and downstream interferon signaling. Significantly, genetic and pharmacological manipulation of cGAS not only attenuated immune signaling, but also prevented premature cellular senescence in response to dysfunctional telomeres. The findings of our study uncover a cellular intrinsic mechanism involving the cGAS-mediated cytosolic self-DNA-sensing pathway that initiates premature senescence independently of telomere shortening.

Isolation of time-dependent DNA damage induced by energetic carbon ions and their fragments using fluorescent nuclear track detectors.

PURPOSE: High energetic carbon (C-) ion beams undergo nuclear interactions with tissue, producing secondary nuclear fragments. Thus, at depth, C-ion beams are composed of a mixture of different particles with different linear energy transfer (LET) values. We developed a technique to enable isolation of DNA damage response (DDR) in mixed radiation fields using beam line microscopy coupled with fluorescence nuclear track detectors (FNTDs). METHODS: We imaged live cells on a coverslip made of FNTDs right after C-ion, proton or photon irradiation using an in-house built confocal microscope placed in the beam path. We used the FNTD to link track traversals with DNA damage and separated DNA damage induced by primary particles from fragments. RESULTS: We were able to spatially link physical parameters of radiation tracks to DDR in live cells to investigate spatiotemporal DDR in multi-ion radiation fields in real time, which was previously not possible. We demonstrated that the response of lesions produced by the high-LET primary particles associates most strongly with cell death in a multi-LET radiation field, and that this association is not seen when analyzing radiation induced foci in aggregate without primary/fragment classification. CONCLUSIONS: We report a new method that uses confocal microscopy in combination with FNTDs to provide submicrometer spatial-resolution measurements of radiation tracks in live cells. Our method facilitates expansion of the radiation-induced DDR research because it can be used in any particle beam line including particle therapy beam lines. CATEGORY: Biological Physics and Response Prediction.

Nonhomologous End Joining Is More Important Than Proton Linear Energy Transfer in Dictating Cell Death.

PURPOSE: This study seeks to identify biological factors that may yield a therapeutic advantage of proton therapy versus photon therapy. Specifically, we address the role of nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ) and homologous recombination (HR) in the survival of cells in response to clinical photon and proton beams. METHODS AND MATERIALS: We irradiated HT1080, M059K (DNA-PKcs+/+), and HCC1937 human cancer cell lines and their isogenic counterparts HT1080-shDNA-PKcs, HT1080-shRAD51IND, M059J (DNA-PKcs-/-), and HCC1937-BRCA1 (BRCA1 complemented) to assess cell clonogenic survival and γ-H2AX radiation-induced foci. Cells were irradiated with either clinically relevant photons or 1 of 3 proton linear energy transfer (LET) values. RESULTS: Our results indicate that NHEJ deficiency is more important in dictating cell survival than proton LET. Cells with disrupted HR through BRCA1 mutation showed increased radiosensitivity only for high-LET protons whereas RAD51 depletion showed increased radiosensitivity for both photons and protons. DNA double strand breaks, assessed by γ-H2AX radiation-induced foci, showed greater numbers after 24 hours in cells exposed to higher LET protons. We also observed that NHEJ-deficient cells were unable to repair the vast majority of double strand breaks after 24 hours. CONCLUSIONS: BRCA1 mutation significantly sensitizes cells to protons, but not photons. Loss of NHEJ renders cells hypersensitive to radiation, whereas the relative importance of HR increases with LET across several cell lines. This may be attributable to the more clustered damage induced by higher LET protons, which are harder to repair through NHEJ. This highlights the importance of tumor biology in dictating treatment modality and suggests BRCA1 as a potential biomarker for proton therapy response. Our data also support the use of pharmacologic inhibitors of DNA repair to enhance the sensitivity to different radiation types, although this raises issues for normal tissue toxicity.

Nuclear Foci Assays in Live Cells.

DNA double strand breaks (DSBs) are a serious threat to genome stability and cell viability. Accurate detection of DSBs is critical for the basic understanding of cellular response to ionizing radiation. Recruitment and retention of DNA repair and response proteins at DSBs can be conveniently visualized by fluorescence imaging (often called ionizing radiation-induced foci) both in live and fixed cells. In this chapter, we describe a live cell imaging methodology that directly monitors induction and repair of single DSB, recruitment kinetics of DSB repair/sensor factors to DSB sites, and dynamic interaction of DSB repair/sensor proteins with DSBs at single-cell level. Additionally, the methodology described in this chapter can be readily adapted to other DSBs repair/sensor factors and cell types.

Mechanistic link between DNA damage sensing, repairing and signaling factors and immune signaling.

Previously, DNA damage sensing, repairing and signaling machineries were thought to mainly suppress genomic instability in response to genotoxic stress. Emerging evidence indicates a crosstalk between DNA repair machinery and the immune system. In this chapter, we attempt to decipher the molecular choreography of how factors, including ATM, BRCA1, DNA-PK, FANCA/D2, MRE11, MUS81, NBS1, RAD51 and TREX1, of multiple DNA metabolic processes are directly or indirectly involved in suppressing cytosolic DNA sensing pathway-mediated immune signaling. We provide systematic details showing how different DDR factors' roles in modulating immune signaling are not direct, but are rather a consequence of their inherent ability to sense, repair and signal in response to DNA damage. Unexpectedly, most DDR factors negatively impact the immune system; that is, the immune system shows defective signaling if there are defects in DNA repair pathways. Thus, in addition to their known DNA repair and replication functions, DDR factors help prevent erroneous activation of immune signaling. A more precise understanding of the mechanisms by which different DDR factors function in immune signaling can be exploited to redirect the immune system for both preventing and treating autoimmunity, cellular senescence and cancer in humans.

Werner Syndrome Protein and DNA Replication.

Werner Syndrome (WS) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by the premature development of aging features. Individuals with WS also have a greater predisposition to rare cancers that are mesenchymal in origin. Werner Syndrome Protein (WRN), the protein mutated in WS, is unique among RecQ family proteins in that it possesses exonuclease and 3' to 5' helicase activities. WRN forms dynamic sub-complexes with different factors involved in DNA replication, recombination and repair. WRN binding partners either facilitate its DNA metabolic activities or utilize it to execute their specific functions. Furthermore, WRN is phosphorylated by multiple kinases, including Ataxia telangiectasia mutated, Ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3 related, c-Abl, Cyclin-dependent kinase 1 and DNA-dependent protein kinase catalytic subunit, in response to genotoxic stress. These post-translational modifications are critical for WRN to function properly in DNA repair, replication and recombination. Accumulating evidence suggests that WRN plays a crucial role in one or more genome stability maintenance pathways, through which it suppresses cancer and premature aging. Among its many functions, WRN helps in replication fork progression, facilitates the repair of stalled replication forks and DNA double-strand breaks associated with replication forks, and blocks nuclease-mediated excessive processing of replication forks. In this review, we specifically focus on human WRN's contribution to replication fork processing for maintaining genome stability and suppressing premature aging. Understanding WRN's molecular role in timely and faithful DNA replication will further advance our understanding of the pathophysiology of WS.

RAD51 interconnects between DNA replication, DNA repair and immunity.

RAD51, a multifunctional protein, plays a central role in DNA replication and homologous recombination repair, and is known to be involved in cancer development. We identified a novel role for RAD51 in innate immune response signaling. Defects in RAD51 lead to the accumulation of self-DNA in the cytoplasm, triggering a STING-mediated innate immune response after replication stress and DNA damage. In the absence of RAD51, the unprotected newly replicated genome is degraded by the exonuclease activity of MRE11, and the fragmented nascent DNA accumulates in the cytosol, initiating an innate immune response. Our data suggest that in addition to playing roles in homologous recombination-mediated DNA double-strand break repair and replication fork processing, RAD51 is also implicated in the suppression of innate immunity. Thus, our study reveals a previously uncharacterized role of RAD51 in initiating immune signaling, placing it at the hub of new interconnections between DNA replication, DNA repair, and immunity.

Repurposing DNA repair factors to eradicate tumor cells upon radiotherapy.

Cancer is the leading cause of death worldwide. Almost 50% of all cancer patients undergo radiation therapy (RT) during treatment, with varying success. The main goal of RT is to kill tumor cells by damaging their DNA irreversibly while sparing the surrounding normal tissue. The outcome of RT is often determined by how tumors recognize and repair their damaged DNA. A growing body of evidence suggests that tumors often show abnormal expression of DNA double-strand break (DSB) repair genes that are absent from normal cells. Defects in a specific DNA repair pathway make tumor cells overly dependent on alternative or backup pathways to repair their damaged DNA. These tumor cell-specific abnormalities in the DNA damage response (DDR) machinery can potentially be used as biomarkers for treatment outcomes or as targets for sensitization to ionizing radiation (IR). An improved understanding of genetic or epigenetic alterations in the DNA repair pathways specific to cancer cells has paved the way for new treatments that combine pharmacological exploitation of tumor-specific molecular vulnerabilities with IR. Inhibiting DNA repair pathways has the potential to greatly enhance the therapeutic ratio of RT. In this review, we will discuss DNA repair pathways in active cells and how these pathways are deregulated in tumors. We will also describe the impact of targeting cancer-specific aberrations in the DDR as a treatment strategy to improve the efficacy of RT. Finally, we will address the current roadblocks and future prospects of these approaches.

Hypoxia induces heart regeneration in adult mice.

The adult mammalian heart is incapable of regeneration following cardiomyocyte loss, which underpins the lasting and severe effects of cardiomyopathy. Recently, it has become clear that the mammalian heart is not a post-mitotic organ. For example, the neonatal heart is capable of regenerating lost myocardium, and the adult heart is capable of modest self-renewal. In both of these scenarios, cardiomyocyte renewal occurs via the proliferation of pre-existing cardiomyocytes, and is regulated by aerobic-respiration-mediated oxidative DNA damage. Therefore, we reasoned that inhibiting aerobic respiration by inducing systemic hypoxaemia would alleviate oxidative DNA damage, thereby inducing cardiomyocyte proliferation in adult mammals. Here we report that, in mice, gradual exposure to severe systemic hypoxaemia, in which inspired oxygen is gradually decreased by 1% and maintained at 7% for 2 weeks, results in inhibition of oxidative metabolism, decreased reactive oxygen species production and oxidative DNA damage, and reactivation of cardiomyocyte mitosis. Notably, we find that exposure to hypoxaemia 1 week after induction of myocardial infarction induces a robust regenerative response with decreased myocardial fibrosis and improvement of left ventricular systolic function. Genetic fate-mapping analysis confirms that the newly formed myocardium is derived from pre-existing cardiomyocytes. These results demonstrate that the endogenous regenerative properties of the adult mammalian heart can be reactivated by exposure to gradual systemic hypoxaemia, and highlight the potential therapeutic role of hypoxia in regenerative medicine.

Tumor suppressor protein DAB2IP participates in chromosomal stability maintenance through activating spindle assembly checkpoint and stabilizing kinetochore-microtubule attachments.

Defects in kinetochore-microtubule (KT-MT) attachment and the spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) during cell division are strongly associated with chromosomal instability (CIN). CIN has been linked to carcinogenesis, metastasis, poor prognosis and resistance to cancer therapy. We previously reported that the DAB2IP is a tumor suppressor, and that loss of DAB2IP is often detected in advanced prostate cancer (PCa) and is indicative of poor prognosis. Here, we report that the loss of DAB2IP results in impaired KT-MT attachment, compromised SAC and aberrant chromosomal segregation. We discovered that DAB2IP directly interacts with Plk1 and its loss inhibits Plk1 kinase activity, thereby impairing Plk1-mediated BubR1 phosphorylation. Loss of DAB2IP decreases the localization of BubR1 at the kinetochore during mitosis progression. In addition, the reconstitution of DAB2IP enhances the sensitivity of PCa cells to microtubule stabilizing drugs (paclitaxel, docetaxel) and Plk1 inhibitor (BI2536). Our findings demonstrate a novel function of DAB2IP in the maintenance of KT-MT structure and SAC regulation during mitosis which is essential for chromosomal stability.

Time-Lapse Monitoring of DNA Damage Colocalized With Particle Tracks in Single Living Cells.

PURPOSE: Understanding the DNA damage and repair induced by hadron therapy (HT) beams is crucial for developing novel strategies to maximize the use of HT beams to treat cancer patients. However, spatiotemporal studies of DNA damage and repair for beam energies relevant to HT have been challenging. We report a technique that enables spatiotemporal measurement of radiation-induced damage in live cells and colocalization of this damage with charged particle tracks over a broad range of clinically relevant beam energies. The technique uses novel fluorescence nuclear track detectors with fluorescence confocal laser scanning microscopy in the beam line to visualize particle track traversals within the subcellular compartments of live cells within seconds after injury. METHODS AND MATERIALS: We designed and built a portable fluorescence confocal laser scanning microscope for use in the beam path, coated fluorescence nuclear track detectors with fluorescent-tagged live cells (HT1080 expressing enhanced green fluorescent protein tagged to XRCC1, a single-strand break repair protein), placed the entire assembly into a proton therapy beam line, and irradiated the cells with a fluence of ∼1 × 10(6) protons/cm(2). RESULTS: We successfully obtained confocal images of proton tracks and foci of DNA single-strand breaks immediately after irradiation. CONCLUSIONS: This technique represents an innovative method for analyzing biological responses in any HT beam line at energies and dose rates relevant to therapy. It allows precise determination of the number of tracks traversing a subcellular compartment and monitoring the cellular damage therein, and has the potential to measure the linear energy transfer of each track from therapeutic beams.

Evaluating biomarkers to model cancer risk post cosmic ray exposure.

Robust predictive models are essential to manage the risk of radiation-induced carcinogenesis. Chronic exposure to cosmic rays in the context of the complex deep space environment may place astronauts at high cancer risk. To estimate this risk, it is critical to understand how radiation-induced cellular stress impacts cell fate decisions and how this in turn alters the risk of carcinogenesis. Exposure to the heavy ion component of cosmic rays triggers a multitude of cellular changes, depending on the rate of exposure, the type of damage incurred and individual susceptibility. Heterogeneity in dose, dose rate, radiation quality, energy and particle flux contribute to the complexity of risk assessment. To unravel the impact of each of these factors, it is critical to identify sensitive biomarkers that can serve as inputs for robust modeling of individual risk of cancer or other long-term health consequences of exposure. Limitations in sensitivity of biomarkers to dose and dose rate, and the complexity of longitudinal monitoring, are some of the factors that increase uncertainties in the output from risk prediction models. Here, we critically evaluate candidate early and late biomarkers of radiation exposure and discuss their usefulness in predicting cell fate decisions. Some of the biomarkers we have reviewed include complex clustered DNA damage, persistent DNA repair foci, reactive oxygen species, chromosome aberrations and inflammation. Other biomarkers discussed, often assayed for at longer points post exposure, include mutations, chromosome aberrations, reactive oxygen species and telomere length changes. We discuss the relationship of biomarkers to different potential cell fates, including proliferation, apoptosis, senescence, and loss of stemness, which can propagate genomic instability and alter tissue composition and the underlying mRNA signatures that contribute to cell fate decisions. Our goal is to highlight factors that are important in choosing biomarkers and to evaluate the potential for biomarkers to inform models of post exposure cancer risk. Because cellular stress response pathways to space radiation and environmental carcinogens share common nodes, biomarker-driven risk models may be broadly applicable for estimating risks for other carcinogens.