Factors Associated With Workplace and Interpersonal Trust in the Supervisory System of a Community Health Worker Programme in a Rural South African District.

BACKGROUND: Key to effective supportive supervision, and ultimately performance of community health workers (CHWs), is the nature of relationships in the formal health system at the coal face of programmes. The central character and defining feature of effective relationships, in turn, is the ability to engender trust. This study describes factors associated with workplace and interpersonal trust, the relationship between the two sets of trust factors and how this shaped perceived performance of CHWs in ward-based outreach teams (WBOTs) in a rural South African district. METHODS: In the context of a wider study of supportive supervision of CHWs, factors recognised to be associated with trust in the literature were studied qualitatively in Ngaka Modiri Molema district, North West Province. Focus group discussions (FGDs) and individual interviews were conducted by the first author with CHWs (23), team leaders (12), facility managers (10) and middle managers (5). Interviews were recorded, translated and transcribed. Perceptions of trust factors associated with workplace and interpersonal trust were analysed thematically. RESULTS: The interviews revealed a climate of considerable workplace mistrust due to the perceived abandonment of the WBOTs programme by managers at all levels, and this affected support and supervision of WBOTs. However, there was a degree of variability and discretion in expressions of interpersonal trust at the coal face, leading to different perceptions of the competence and functionality of the WBOTs. Mistrust in the workplace and poor interpersonal relationships translated into low confidence in the ability of CHWs, which in turn compromised the performance of these teams. CONCLUSION: The study contributes empirical evidence on how workplace trust factors impact on interpersonal trust factors and the possible implications of both sets of trust factors on perceived performance of CHWs. Wider trust in the health system have a significant bearing on interpersonal trust between CHWs and other players in the primary healthcare (PHC) system.

Developing a district level supportive supervision framework for community health workers through co-production in South Africa.

BACKGROUND: One of the key challenges of community health worker (CHW) programmes across the globe is inadequate supervision. Evidence on effective approaches to CHW supervision is limited and intervention research has up to now focused primarily on outcomes and less on intervention development processes. This paper reports on participatory and iterative research on the supervision of CHWs, conducted in several phases and culminating in a co-produced district level supportive supervision framework for Ward Based Outreach Teams in a South African district. METHODS: Drawing on a conceptual framework of domains of co-production, the paper reflects on the implications of the research process adopted for participants, generation of research knowledge and recommendations for practice, as well as lessons for research on the supervision of CHWs. RESULTS: Through the research process, participants reflected and engaged meaningfully, honestly and productively across hierarchies, and were able to forge new, dialogic relationships. The iterative, back forth feedback, involving a core group of participants across phases, enabled additions and validations, and informed further data collection. The culmination of the process was consensus on the key issues facing the programme and the generation of a set of recommendations for a local, context-specific framework of supportive supervision. The process of engagement, relationships built and consensus forged proved to be more significant than the framework itself. CONCLUSION: The co-production approach can enable local impact of research findings by providing a bottom-up collaborative platform of active participation, iterative feedback, knowledge generation and mutual learning that can complement guidance and frameworks from above. Although time consuming and not without its limitations, this approach to research has much to offer in advancing understanding of CHW supervision.

National guidance and district-level practices in the supervision of community health workers in South Africa: a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: Supportive supervision is considered critical to community health worker programme performance, but there is relatively little understanding of how it can be sustainably done at scale. Supportive supervision is a holistic concept that encompasses three key functions: management (ensuring performance), education (promoting development) and support (responding to needs and problems). Drawing on the experiences of the ward-based outreach team (WBOT) strategy, South Africa's national community health worker (CHW) programme, this paper explores and describes approaches to supportive supervision in policy and programme guidelines and how these are implemented in supervision practices in the North West Province, an early adopter of the WBOT strategy. Outreach teams typically consist of six CHWs plus a nurse outreach team leader (OTL). METHODS: A qualitative, descriptive study that combined a document review of national policy and guidelines with key informant interviews in two districts of the North West Province was conducted. An overall WBOT policy statement and four guidelines on aspects of the strategy, spanning the period 2011-2017, were reviewed for statements on the three core facets of supervision outlined above. Eight focus group discussions, involving facility managers, team leaders and community health workers (total 40 respondents), purposively selected from four sub-districts in two districts, assessed local-level supervision practices. Alignment across policy and guidance documents and between policy/guidance and practice was examined. FINDINGS: While all the official policy documents and guidelines reviewed acknowledged the need for supervision and support, these elements were inadequately developed and poorly aligned, both in terms of scope and in providing firm guidance on the supervision of WBOTs. The practices of supervision entailed a variety of reporting lines, while development and support processes were informal and often lacking, and teams poorly resourced. There was internal cohesion and support within teams amongst CHWs and between CHWs and OTLs. However, primary health care clinic managers, who were supposed to supervise the WBOTs, struggled to fulfil this role amidst the high workloads in facilities, and relationships between WBOTs and facility staff often remained strained. CONCLUSION: This study identified weaknesses in both the design and implementation of the supervision system of WBOTs. The lack of explicit, coherent and holistic guidance in policy and the failure to address constraints to supervision at local level undermine the performance and sustainability of the WBOT strategy in South Africa.

The supervisory relationships of community health workers in primary health care: social network analysis of ward-based outreach teams in Ngaka Modiri Molema District, South Africa.

INTRODUCTION: Supportive supervision remains a key challenge to the sustainability of community health worker (CHW) programmes globally. The aim of the study was to identify critical actors and patterns of relationships in the supervision of ward-based outreach teams (WBOT) in a rural South African district. METHODS: A cross-sectional study of social and professional relationships of WBOTs with other primary health care (PHC) system actors was conducted using a social network analysis (SNA) approach. A structured questionnaire was distributed to CHWs (37), WBOT team leaders (3), PHC facility managers (5) and PHC local area managers (2) (total n=47) assessing interaction patterns of supportive supervision, namely management, development and support. RESULTS: The supportive supervision system pivoted around team leaders, who were nurse cadres and who ensured internal cohesion and support among WBOT members. The network patterns also showed the extent of peer support between CHWs in WBOTs. PHC facility staff and middle managers in the subdistrict did not appear to play active roles in the supervision of CHWs and their team leaders. However, there were exceptions, with WBOTs drawing on sympathetic cadres identified among the PHC facility staff for support. CONCLUSION: Supportive supervision of CHWs can be thought of as a system of horizontal and vertical relationships that go beyond just one supervisor-supervisee interaction. In this study, supervisory relationships within teams functioned better than those between teams and the rest of the PHC system. Understanding these relationships is key to designing effective supportive supervision in CHW programmes. SNA can be a valuable approach in identifying the relationships to be strengthened.