ABSTRACT
One of the most common bacterial infections of the skin and soft tissue is furunculosis (boil), an inflammatory nodule that involves the hair follicle, with small abscess formation extending through the dermis into the subcutaneous layers. Treatment of recurrent furunculosis is a difficult and challenging process. The mainstay of therapy is incision and drainage of a furuncle coupled with bacterial culture. Affected patients and their family members must practice good hygiene, predicated with regular hand washing, fomite cleaning, and avoiding contact with contaminated skin.
Subject(s)
Anti-Bacterial Agents/therapeutic use , Drainage , Furunculosis/microbiology , Furunculosis/therapy , Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus/drug effects , Staphylococcal Skin Infections/drug therapy , Staphylococcal Vaccines/therapeutic use , Staphylococcus aureus/drug effects , Therapies, Investigational , Adolescent , Adult , Bacteriophages , Child , Clinical Trials as Topic , Female , Furunculosis/diagnosis , Furunculosis/prevention & control , Humans , Male , Recurrence , Risk Factors , Staphylococcal Skin Infections/prevention & control , Staphylococcal Skin Infections/transmission , Staphylococcus aureus/immunology , Staphylococcus aureus/virology , Young AdultABSTRACT
The antiestrogen tamoxifen has been widely used for decades as selective estrogen receptor (ER) modulator for ERalpha-positive breast tumors. Tamoxifen significantly reduces tumor recurrence by binding to the activation function-2 (AF-2) domain of the ER. Acquired resistance to tamoxifen in breast cancer patients is a serious therapeutic problem. Antiestrogen-resistant breast cancer often shows increased expression of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) family members, EGFR and ErbB2. In this report we now show that overexpression of EGFR or activated AKT-2 in MCF-7 cells leads to phosphorylation of Ser167 in the AF-1 domain of ERalpha, enhanced ER-amplified in breast cancer 1 (ER:AIB1) interaction in the presence of tamoxifen, and resistance to tamoxifen. In contrast, transfection of activated MAPK kinase, an immediate upstream activator of MAPK (ERK 1 and 2) into MCF-7 cells leads to phosphorylation of Ser118 in the AF-1 domain of ERalpha, inhibition of ER-amplified in breast cancer 1 (ER:AIB1) interaction in the presence of Tam, and maintenance of sensitivity to tamoxifen. Inhibition of AKT by short inhibitory RNA blocked Ser167 phosphorylation in ER and restored tamoxifen sensitivity. However, maximum sensitivity to tamoxifen was observed when both AKT and MAPK were inhibited. Taken together, these data demonstrate that different phosphorylation sites in the AF-1 domain of ERalpha regulate the agonistic and antagonistic actions of tamoxifen in human breast cancer cells.
Subject(s)
Antineoplastic Agents, Hormonal/agonists , Antineoplastic Agents, Hormonal/antagonists & inhibitors , Breast Neoplasms/metabolism , Estrogen Receptor alpha/metabolism , Tamoxifen/agonists , Tamoxifen/antagonists & inhibitors , Antineoplastic Agents, Hormonal/therapeutic use , Breast Neoplasms/drug therapy , Cell Line, Tumor , Drug Resistance, Neoplasm , Estrogen Receptor alpha/antagonists & inhibitors , Green Fluorescent Proteins/metabolism , Humans , Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase 1/genetics , Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase 1/metabolism , Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase 3/genetics , Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase 3/metabolism , Oncogene Proteins v-erbB/metabolism , Phosphorylation , Protein Structure, Tertiary , Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-akt/antagonists & inhibitors , Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-akt/genetics , Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-akt/metabolism , RNA, Small Interfering/genetics , RNA, Small Interfering/pharmacology , Serine/metabolism , Tamoxifen/therapeutic use , TransfectionABSTRACT
Activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (MAPK/ERK) pathway is a frequent event in tumorigenesis. MAPKs have been implicated in cell migration, proteinase-induction, regulation of apoptosis, and angiogenesis, events that are essential for successful completion of metastasis. In this review, we discuss the potential role that MAPKs play in metastasis by regulating cell migration, proteinase-induction and apoptosis.
Subject(s)
MAP Kinase Signaling System , Neoplasms/pathology , Apoptosis , Cell Movement , Disease Progression , Humans , Models, Biological , Neoplasm Invasiveness , Neoplasms/enzymology , Neovascularization, Pathologic , Signal TransductionABSTRACT
The estrogen receptor alpha (ERalpha) signaling plays an essential role in breast cancer progression and endocrine therapy. Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK/Erk1/2) has been implicated in ligand-independent activation of ER, resulting in the cross-talk between growth factor and ER mediated signaling. In this study, we examined the effect of the cross-talk on estradiol (E(2))-mediated signaling, tumor growth and its effect on anti-estrogen therapy. Our findings demonstrate that expression of constitutively activated mitogen activated kinase kinase (MEK1), an immediate upstream activator of MAPK in estrogen receptor positive MCF-7 breast cancer cells (MEK/MCF-7), showed an increase in ERalpha-driven transcriptional activation. In MEK/MCF-7 cells maximal transactivation levels were achieved in response to treatment with much lower E(2) concentrations (10(-10) M E(2)) when compared to MCF-7 control cells (10(-8) M E(2)). Furthermore, we have seen an increased association between ERalpha and its nuclear coactivators AIB1 or TIF-2, in MEK/MCF-7 cells relative to those seen in MCF-7 control cells. In addition, in vivo studies show that MEK/MCF-7 cell tumors are approximately threefold larger than those of MCF-7 cell, in the presence of E(2). Immunohistochemical staining demonstrates that progesterone receptor (PR) and pS2, two E(2)-regulated gene products, are significantly increased in MEK/MCF-7 cell tumors compared to those of MCF-7 control tumors, suggesting that activation of ERalpha by MAPK enhances the expression of E(2)-regulated genes and accelerates tumor growth. Remarkably, the antiestrogens tamoxifen and ICI 182,780, were shown both in vitro and in vivo studies to efficiently antagonize the stimulatory effects of E(2) on ER regulated transactivation and tumor growth in MEK/MCF-7 as well as MCF-7 cell lines. Taken together, these data suggest that MAPK/ER cross-talk enhances ERalpha-mediated signaling and accelerates E(2)-dependent tumor growth without diminishing sensitivity to the inhibitory effects of anti-estrogens.
