Obesity-associated inflammatory macrophage polarization is inhibited by capsaicin and phytolignans.

Obesity is often accompanied by increased adipose tissue inflammation, a process that is partially driven by adipose tissue-resident macrophages. In this study, we explored the potential for plant-derived dietary compounds to exert anti-inflammatory effects in macrophages that alleviate obesity-associated adipocyte dysfunction. Capsaicin (CAP), schisandrin A (SA), enterodiol (END), and enterolactone (ENL) treatment polarized J774 macrophages to an "M2" or anti-inflammatory phenotype and inhibited responses to stimulation with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Furthermore, these compounds blocked inflammasome activation when administered just before ATP-induced NLRP3 activation, as evidenced by the abrogation of IL-1ß release in mouse macrophages and human peripheral blood monocytes. The addition of CAP, SA, or ENL during the differentiation of bone marrow-derived macrophages was also sufficient to inhibit LPS-induced IL-6 and TNFα production. Finally, CAP, END, and ENL treatment during differentiation of 3T3-L1 adipocytes induced an adiponectin-high phenotype accompanied by increases in thermogenic gene expression, and conditioned media from these adipocytes inhibited LPS-induced production of IL-1ß, IL-6, and TNFα from J774 macrophages. These polarizing effects were partially mediated by the elevated adiponectin and decreased syndecan-4 in the adipocyte-conditioned media. These results implicate the contribution of plant-derived dietary components to the modulation of macrophages and adipocytes in obesity.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The utility of food-based products to prevent or alleviate chronic conditions such as obesity and its associated comorbidities is an attractive approach. Capsaicin, schisandrin A, enterodiol, and enterolactone, phytochemicals present in traditional medicinal food, decreased proinflammatory cytokine production from macrophages that, in turn, reduced obesity-associated adipocyte dysfunction. These results implicate the contribution of plant-derived dietary components to the modulation of macrophages and adipocytes in obesity.

LncRNA U90926 is dispensable for the development of obesity-associated phenotypes in vivo.

Obesity is a global health problem characterized by excessive fat accumulation, driven by adipogenesis and lipid accumulation. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have recently been implicated in regulating adipogenesis and adipose tissue function. Mouse lncRNA U90926 was previously identified as a repressor of in vitro adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. Consequently, we hypothesized that, in vivo, U90926 may repress adipogenesis, and hence its deletion would increase weight gain and adiposity. We tested the hypothesis by applying U90926-deficient (U9-KO) mice to a high-throughput phenotyping pipeline. Compared with WT, U9-KO mice showed no major differences across a wide range of behavioral, neurological, and other physiological parameters. In mice fed a standard diet, we have found no differences in obesity-related phenotypes, including weight gain, fat mass, and plasma concentrations of glucose, insulin, triglycerides, and free fatty acids, in U9-KO mice compared to WT. U90926 deficiency lacked a major effect on white adipose tissue morphology and gene expression profile. Furthermore, in mice fed a high-fat diet, we found increased expression of U90926 in adipose tissue stromal vascular cell fraction, yet observed no effect of U90926 deficiency on weight gain, fat mass, adipogenesis marker expression, and immune cell infiltration into the adipose tissue. These data suggest that the U90926 lacks an essential role in obesity-related phenotypes and adipose tissue biology in vivo.

Bariatric surgery decreases the capacity of plasma from obese asthmatic subjects to augment airway epithelial cell proinflammatory cytokine production.

Obesity is a risk factor for asthma. Individuals with asthma and obesity often have poor asthma control and do not respond as well to therapies such as inhaled corticosteroids and long-acting bronchodilators. Weight loss improves asthma control, with a 5%-10% loss in body mass necessary and sufficient to lead to clinically relevant improvements. Preclinical studies have demonstrated the pathogenic contribution of adipocytes from obese mice to the augmented production of proinflammatory cytokines from airway epithelial cells and the salutary effects of diet-induced weight loss to decrease these consequences. However, the effects of adipocyte-derived products on airway epithelial function in human obesity remain incompletely understood. We utilized samples collected from a 12-mo longitudinal study of subjects with obesity undergoing weight loss (bariatric) surgery including controls without asthma and subjects with allergic and nonallergic obese asthma. Visceral adipose tissue (VAT) samples were collected during bariatric surgery and from recruited normal weight controls without asthma undergoing elective abdominal surgery. Human bronchial epithelial (HBEC3-KT) cells were exposed to plasma or conditioned media from cultured VAT adipocytes with or without agonists. Human bronchial smooth muscle (HBSM) cells were similarly exposed to adipocyte-conditioned media. Proinflammatory cytokines were augmented in supernatants from HBEC3-KT cells exposed to plasma as compared with subsequent visits. Whereas exposure to obese adipocyte-conditioned media induced proinflammatory responses, there were no differences between groups in both HBEC3-KT and HBSM cells. These data show that bariatric surgery and subsequent weight loss beneficially change the circulating factors that augment human airway epithelial and bronchial smooth muscle cell proinflammatory responses.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This longitudinal study following subjects with asthma and obesity reveals that weight loss following bariatric surgery decreases the capacity for plasma to augment proinflammatory cytokine secretion by human bronchial epithelial cells, implicating that circulating but not adipocyte-derived factors are important modulators in obese asthma.

Diet-induced obesity worsens allergen-induced type 2/type 17 inflammation in airways by enhancing DUOX1 activation.

More than 50% of people with asthma in the United States are obese, and obesity often worsens symptoms of allergic asthma and impairs response to treatment. Based on previously established roles of the epithelial NADPH oxidase DUOX1 in allergic airway inflammation, we addressed the potential involvement of DUOX1 in altered allergic inflammation in the context of obesity. Intranasal house dust mite (HDM) allergen challenge of subjects with allergic asthma induced rapid secretion of IL-33, then IL-13, into the nasal lumen, responses that were significantly enhanced in obese asthmatic subjects (BMI >30). Induction of diet-induced obesity (DIO) in mice by high-fat diet (HFD) feeding similarly enhanced acute airway responses to intranasal HDM challenge, particularly with respect to secretion of IL-33 and type 2/type 3 cytokines, and this was associated with enhanced epithelial DUOX1 expression and was avoided in DUOX1-deficient mice. DIO also enhanced DUOX1-dependent features of chronic HDM-induced allergic inflammation. Although DUOX1 did not affect overall weight gain by HFD feeding, it contributed to glucose intolerance, suggesting a role in glucose metabolism. However, glucose intolerance induced by short-term HFD feeding, in the absence of adiposity, was not sufficient to alter HDM-induced acute airway responses. DIO was associated with enhanced presence of the adipokine leptin in the airways, and leptin enhanced DUOX1-dependent IL-13 and mucin production in airway epithelial cells. In conclusion, augmented inflammatory airway responses to HDM in obesity are associated with increases in airway epithelial DUOX1, and by increased airway epithelial leptin signaling.

Ketone body augmentation decreases methacholine hyperresponsiveness in mouse models of allergic asthma.

Background: Individuals with allergic asthma exhibit lung inflammation and remodeling accompanied by methacholine hyperresponsiveness manifesting in proximal airway narrowing and distal lung tissue collapsibility, and they can present with a range of mild-to-severe disease amenable or resistant to therapeutic intervention, respectively. There remains a need for alternatives or complements to existing treatments that could control the physiologic manifestations of allergic asthma. Objectives: Our aim was to examine the hypothesis that because ketone bodies elicit anti-inflammatory activity and are effective in mitigating the methacholine hyperresponsiveness associated with obese asthma, increasing systemic concentrations of ketone bodies would diminish pathologic outcomes in asthma-relevant cell types and in mouse models of allergic asthma. Methods: We explored the effects of ketone bodies on allergic asthma-relevant cell types (macrophages, airway epithelial cells, CD4 T cells, and bronchial smooth muscle cells) in vitro as well as in vivo by using preclinical models representative of several endotypes of allergic asthma to determine whether promotion of ketosis through feeding a ketogenic diet or providing a ketone precursor or a ketone ester dietary supplement could affect immune and inflammatory parameters as well as methacholine hyperresponsiveness. Results: In a dose-dependent manner, the ketone bodies acetoacetate and ß-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) decreased proinflammatory cytokine secretion from mouse macrophages and airway epithelial cells, decreased house dust mite (HDM) extract-induced IL-8 secretion from human airway epithelial cells, and decreased cytokine production from polyclonally and HDM-activated T cells. Feeding a ketogenic diet, providing a ketone body precursor, or supplementing the diet with a ketone ester increased serum BHB concentrations and decreased methacholine hyperresponsiveness in several acute HDM sensitization and challenge models of allergic asthma. A ketogenic diet or ketone ester supplementation decreased methacholine hyperresponsiveness in an HDM rechallenge model of chronic allergic asthma. Ketone ester supplementation synergized with corticosteroid treatment to decrease methacholine hyperresponsiveness in an HDM-driven model of mixed-granulocytic severe asthma. HDM-induced morphologic changes in bronchial smooth muscle cells were inhibited in a dose-dependent manner by BHB, as was HDM protease activity. Conclusions: Increasing systemic BHB concentrations through dietary interventions could provide symptom relief for several endotypes of allergic asthmatic individuals through effects on multiple asthma-relevant cells.

Macrophage-intrinsic DUOX1 contributes to type 2 inflammation and mucus metaplasia during allergic airway disease.

The NADPH oxidase DUOX1 contributes to epithelial production of alarmins, including interleukin (IL)-33, in response to injurious triggers such as airborne protease allergens, and mediates development of mucus metaplasia and airway remodeling in chronic allergic airways diseases. DUOX1 is also expressed in non-epithelial lung cell types, including macrophages that play an important role in airway remodeling during chronic lung disease. We therefore conditionally deleted DUOX1 in either lung epithelial or monocyte/macrophage lineages to address its cell-specific actions in innate airway responses to acute airway challenge with house dust mite (HDM) allergen, and in chronic HDM-driven allergic airway inflammation. As expected, acute responses to airway challenge with HDM, as well as type 2 inflammation and related features of airway remodeling during chronic HDM-induced allergic inflammation, were largely driven by DUOX1 with the respiratory epithelium. However, in the context of chronic HDM-driven inflammation, DUOX1 deletion in macrophages also significantly impaired type 2 cytokine production and indices of mucus metaplasia. Further studies revealed a contribution of macrophage-intrinsic DUOX1 in macrophage recruitment upon chronic HDM challenge, as well as features of macrophage activation that impact on type 2 inflammation and remodeling.

Therapeutic ketosis decreases methacholine hyperresponsiveness in mouse models of inherent obese asthma.

Obese asthmatics tend to have severe, poorly controlled disease and exhibit methacholine hyperresponsiveness manifesting in proximal airway narrowing and distal lung tissue collapsibility. Substantial weight loss in obese asthmatics or in mouse models of the condition decreases methacholine hyperresponsiveness. Ketone bodies are rapidly elevated during weight loss, coinciding with or preceding relief from asthma-related comorbidities. As ketone bodies may exert numerous potentially therapeutic effects, augmenting their systemic concentrations is being targeted for the treatment of several conditions. Circulating ketone body levels can be increased by feeding a ketogenic diet or by providing a ketone ester dietary supplement, which we hypothesized would exert protective effects in mouse models of inherent obese asthma. Weight loss induced by feeding a low-fat diet to mice previously fed a high-fat diet was preceded by increased urine and blood levels of the ketone body ß-hydroxybutyrate (BHB). Feeding a ketogenic diet for 3 wk to high-fat diet-fed obese mice or genetically obese db/db mice increased BHB concentrations and decreased methacholine hyperresponsiveness without substantially decreasing body weight. Acute ketone ester administration decreased methacholine responsiveness of normal mice, and dietary ketone ester supplementation of high-fat diet-fed mice decreased methacholine hyperresponsiveness. Ketone ester supplementation also transiently induced an "antiobesogenic" gut microbiome with a decreased Fermicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio. Dietary interventions to increase systemic BHB concentrations could provide symptom relief for obese asthmatics without the need for the substantial weight loss required of patients to elicit benefits to their asthma through bariatric surgery or other diet or lifestyle alterations.

Obese adipose tissue modulates proinflammatory responses of mouse airway epithelial cells.

Although recognized as an important endocrine organ, little is known about the mechanisms through which adipose tissue can regulate inflammatory responses in distant tissues, such as lung that are affected by obesity. To explore potential mechanisms, male C57BL/6J mice were provided either high-fat diet, low-fat diet, or were provided a high-fat diet then switched to the low-fat diet to promote weight loss. Visceral adipocytes were then cultured in vitro to generate conditioned media (CM) that was used to treat both primary (mouse tracheal epithelial cells; MTECs) and immortalized (mouse-transformed club cells; MTCCs) airway epithelial cells. Adiponectin levels were greatly depressed in the CM from both obese and diet-switched adipocytes relative to mice continually fed the low-fat diet. MTECs from mice with obesity secreted higher baseline levels of inflammatory cytokines than MTECs from lean or diet-switched mice. MTECs treated with obese adipocyte CM increased their secretion of these cytokines compared with MTECs treated with lean CM. Diet-switched CM modestly decreased the production of cytokines compared with obese CM, and these effects were recapitulated when the CM was used to treat MTCCs. Adipose stromal vascular cells from mice with obesity expressed genes consistent with an M1 macrophage phenotype and decreased eosinophil abundance compared with lean stromal vascular fraction, a profile that persisted in the lean diet-switched mice despite substantial weight loss. Soluble factors secreted from obese adipocytes exert a proinflammatory effect on airway epithelial cells, and these alterations are attenuated by diet-induced weight loss, which could have implications for the airway dysfunction related to obese asthma and its mitigation by weight loss.

Therapeutic efficacy of IL-17A neutralization with corticosteroid treatment in a model of antigen-driven mixed-granulocytic asthma.

Many mouse models of allergic asthma exhibit eosinophil-predominant cellularity rather than the mixed-granulocytic cytology in steroid-unresponsive severe disease. Therefore, we sought to implement a novel mouse model of antigen-driven, mixed-granulocytic, severe allergic asthma to determine biomarkers of the disease process and potential therapeutic targets. C57BL/6J wild-type, interleukin-6 knockout (IL-6-/-), and IL-6 receptor knockout (IL-6R-/-), mice were injected with an emulsion of complete Freund's adjuvant and house dust mite antigen (CFA/HDM) on day 1. Dexamethasone, a lymphocyte-depleting biological, or anti-IL-17A was administered during the intranasal HDM challenge on days 19-22. On day 23, the CFA/HDM model elicited mixed bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) cellularity (typically 80% neutrophils and 10% eosinophils), airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) to methacholine, diffusion impairment, lung damage, body weight loss, corticosteroid resistance, and elevated levels of serum amyloid A (SAA), pro-inflammatory cytokines, and T helper type 1/ T helper type 17 (Th1/Th17) cytokines compared with eosinophilic models of HDM-driven allergic airway disease. BAL cells in IL-6- or IL-6R-deficient mice were predominantly eosinophilic and associated with elevated T helper type 2 (Th2) and reduced Th1/Th17 cytokine production, along with an absence of SAA. Nevertheless, AHR remained in IL-6-deficient mice even when dexamethasone was administered. However, combined administration of anti-IL-17A and systemic corticosteroid significantly attenuated both overall and neutrophilic airway inflammation and also reduced AHR and body weight loss. Inhibition of IL-17A combined with systemic corticosteroid treatment during antigen-driven exacerbations may provide a novel therapeutic approach to prevent the pathological pulmonary and constitutional changes that greatly impact patients with the mixed-granulocytic endotype of severe asthma.

The Effect of Flavored E-cigarettes on Murine Allergic Airways Disease.

Flavored e-cigarettes are preferred by the majority of users yet their potential toxicity is unknown. Therefore our aim was to determine the effect of selected flavored e-cigarettes, with or without nicotine, on allergic airways disease in mice. Balb/c mice were challenged with PBS or house dust mite (HDM) (Days 0, 7, 14-18) and exposed to room air or e-cigarette aerosol for 30 min twice daily, 6 days/week from Days 0-18 (n = 8-12/group). Mice were exposed to Room Air, vehicle control (50%VG/%50PG), Black Licorice, Kola, Banana Pudding or Cinnacide without or with 12 mg/mL nicotine. Mice were assessed at 72 hours after the final HDM challenge. Compared to mice challenged with HDM and exposed to Room Air, nicotine-free Cinnacide reduced airway inflammation (p = 0.045) and increased peripheral airway hyperresponsiveness (p = 0.02), nicotine-free Banana Pudding increased soluble lung collagen (p = 0.049), with a trend towards increased airway inflammation with nicotine-free Black Licorice exposure (p = 0.089). In contrast, all e-cigarettes containing nicotine suppressed airway inflammation (p < 0.001 for all) but did not alter airway hyperresponsiveness or airway remodeling. Flavored e-cigarettes without nicotine had significant but heterogeneous effects on features of allergic airways disease. This suggests that some flavored e-cigarettes may alter asthma pathophysiology even when used without nicotine.

Regulation of invariant NKT cell development and function by a 0.14 Mbp locus on chromosome 1: a possible role for Fcgr3.

Invariant NKT (iNKT) cells are tissue-resident innate-like T cells critical to the host immune response. We previously identified a 6.6 Mbp region on chromosome 1 as a major regulator of iNKT cell number and function in C57BL/6 and 129X1/SvJ mice. Here, we fine-mapped this locus by assessing the iNKT cell response to alpha-galactosylceramide (αGalCer) in a series of B6.129 congenic lines. This analysis revealed the presence of at least two genetic elements that regulate iNKT cell cytokine production in response to αGalCer. While one of these genetic elements mapped to the B6.129c6 interval containing Slam genes, the dominant regulator in this region mapped to the 0.14 Mbp B6.129c3 interval. In addition, we found that numbers of thymic iNKT cells and DP thymocytes were significantly lower in B6.129c3 mice, indicating that this interval also regulates iNKT cell development. Candidate gene analysis revealed a fivefold increase in Fcgr3 expression in B6.129c3 iNKT cells, and we observed increased expression of FcγR3 protein on B6.129c3 iNKT cells, NK cells, and neutrophils. These data identify the B6.129c3 interval as a novel locus regulating the response of iNKT cells to glycosphingolipid, revealing a link between this phenotype and a polymorphism that regulates Fcgr3 expression.

Serum Amyloid A3 is required for normal lung development and survival following influenza infection.

Serum amyloid A (SAA) proteins are a family of acute phase apolipoproteins implicated to directly modulate innate and adaptive immune responses. However, new studies comparing endogenous SAAs and recombinant forms of these proteins have questioned the function of SAA in inflammation and immunity. We generated SAA3 knockout mice to evaluate the contribution of SAA3 to lung development and immune-mediated lung disease. While SAA3 deficiency does not affect the generation of house dust mite-induced allergic asthma, mice lacking SAA3 develop adult-onset obesity, intrinsic airway hyperresponsiveness, increased inflammatory and fibrotic gene expression in the lung, and elevated levels of lung citrullinated proteins. Polyclonally stimulated CD4+ T cells from SAA3-/- mice exhibit impaired glycolytic activity, decreased TH2 and TH1 cytokine secretion, and elevated IL-17A production compared to wild type cells. Polyclonally stimulated CD8+ T cells from SAA3-/- mice also exhibit impaired glycolytic activity as well as a diminished capacity to produce IL-2 and IFNγ. Finally, SAA3-/- mice demonstrate increased mortality in response to H1N1 influenza infection, along with higher copy number of viral RNAs in the lung, a lack of CD8+ T cell IFNγ secretion, and decreased flu-specific antibodies. Our findings indicate that endogenous SAA3 regulates lung development and homeostasis, and is required for protection against H1N1 influenza infection.

Bacterial Lipoproteins Constitute the TLR2-Stimulating Activity of Serum Amyloid A.

Studies comparing endogenous and recombinant serum amyloid A (SAA) have generated conflicting data on the proinflammatory function of these proteins. In exploring this discrepancy, we found that in contrast to commercially sourced recombinant human SAA1 (hSAA1) proteins produced in Escherichia coli, hSAA1 produced from eukaryotic cells did not promote proinflammatory cytokine production from human or mouse cells, induce Th17 differentiation, or stimulate TLR2. Proteomic analysis of E. coli-derived hSAA1 revealed the presence of numerous bacterial proteins, with several being reported or probable lipoproteins. Treatment of hSAA1 with lipoprotein lipase or addition of a lipopeptide to eukaryotic cell-derived hSAA1 inhibited or induced the production of TNF-α from macrophages, respectively. Our results suggest that a function of SAA is in the binding of TLR2-stimulating bacterial proteins, including lipoproteins, and demand that future studies of SAA employ a recombinant protein derived from eukaryotic cells.

Serum amyloid A3 is required for normal weight and immunometabolic function in mice.

Serum amyloid A (SAA) is an apolipoprotein that is robustly upregulated in numerous inflammatory diseases and has been implicated as a candidate pro-inflammatory mediator. However, studies comparing endogenous SAAs and recombinant forms of the acute phase protein have generated conflicting data on the function of SAA in immunity. We generated SAA3 knockout mice to evaluate the contribution of SAA3 to immune-mediated disease, and found that mice lacking SAA3 develop adult-onset obesity and metabolic dysfunction along with defects in innate immune development. Mice that lack SAA3 gain more weight, exhibit increased visceral adipose deposition, and develop hepatic steatosis compared to wild-type littermates. Leukocytes from the adipose tissue of SAA3-/- mice express a pro-inflammatory phenotype, and bone marrow derived dendritic cells from mice lacking SAA3 secrete increased levels of IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-23, and TNFα in response to LPS compared to cells from wild-type mice. Finally, BMDC lacking SAA3 demonstrate an impaired endotoxin tolerance response and inhibited responses to retinoic acid. Our findings indicate that endogenous SAA3 modulates metabolic and immune homeostasis.

IL-1/inhibitory κB kinase ε-induced glycolysis augment epithelial effector function and promote allergic airways disease.

BACKGROUND: Emerging studies suggest that enhanced glycolysis accompanies inflammatory responses. Virtually nothing is known about the relevance of glycolysis in patients with allergic asthma. OBJECTIVES: We sought to determine whether glycolysis is altered in patients with allergic asthma and to address its importance in the pathogenesis of allergic asthma. METHODS: We examined alterations in glycolysis in sputum samples from asthmatic patients and primary human nasal cells and used murine models of allergic asthma, as well as primary mouse tracheal epithelial cells, to evaluate the relevance of glycolysis. RESULTS: In a murine model of allergic asthma, glycolysis was induced in the lungs in an IL-1-dependent manner. Furthermore, administration of IL-1ß into the airways stimulated lactate production and expression of glycolytic enzymes, with notable expression of lactate dehydrogenase A occurring in the airway epithelium. Indeed, exposure of mouse tracheal epithelial cells to IL-1ß or IL-1α resulted in increased glycolytic flux, glucose use, expression of glycolysis genes, and lactate production. Enhanced glycolysis was required for IL-1ß- or IL-1α-mediated proinflammatory responses and the stimulatory effects of IL-1ß on house dust mite (HDM)-induced release of thymic stromal lymphopoietin and GM-CSF from tracheal epithelial cells. Inhibitor of κB kinase ε was downstream of HDM or IL-1ß and required for HDM-induced glycolysis and pathogenesis of allergic airways disease. Small interfering RNA ablation of lactate dehydrogenase A attenuated HDM-induced increases in lactate levels and attenuated HDM-induced disease. Primary nasal epithelial cells from asthmatic patients intrinsically produced more lactate compared with cells from healthy subjects. Lactate content was significantly higher in sputum supernatants from asthmatic patients, notably those with greater than 61% neutrophils. A positive correlation was observed between sputum lactate and IL-1ß levels, and lactate content correlated negatively with lung function. CONCLUSIONS: Collectively, these findings demonstrate that IL-1ß/inhibitory κB kinase ε signaling plays an important role in HDM-induced glycolysis and pathogenesis of allergic airways disease.

The role of iNKT cells on the phenotypes of allergic airways in a mouse model.

iNKT cells and mast cells have both been implicated in the syndrome of allergic asthma through their activation-induced release of Th2 type cytokines and secretion of histamine and other mediators, respectively, which can promote airways hyperresponsiveness (AHR) to agents such as methacholine. However, a mechanistic link between iNKT cells and mast cell recruitment or activation has never been explored. Our objective was to determine whether iNKT cells are necessary for the recruitment of mast cells and if iNKT cells can influence the acute allergen induced bronchoconstriction (AIB) caused by mast cell mediator release. To do so, we pharmacologically eliminated iNKT cells using a specific antibody (NKT-14) and examined its impact on airway inflammation and physiological phenotype. In mice treated with NKT-14, the elimination of iNKT cells was sufficient to prevent AHR and pulmonary eosinophilic inflammation elicited by administration of the iNKT cell agonist αGalCer. In mice treated with NKT-14 and then sensitized and challenged with house dust mite extract (HDM), eliminating the iNKT cells significantly reduced both AHR and AIB but did not affect pulmonary inflammation, the mast cell population, nor the release of the mast cell mediators mast cell protease-1 and prostaglandin D2. We conclude that while iNKT cells contribute to the phenotype of allergic airways disease through the manifestation of AIB and AHR, their presence is not required for mast cell recruitment and activation, or to generate the characteristic inflammatory response subsequent to allergen challenge.

Mitochondrial ROS induced by chronic ethanol exposure promote hyper-activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome.

Alcohol use disorders are common both in the United States and globally, and are associated with a variety of co-morbid, inflammation-linked diseases. The pathogenesis of many of these ailments are driven by the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, a multi-protein intracellular pattern recognition receptor complex that facilitates the cleavage and secretion of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1ß and IL-18. We hypothesized that protracted exposure of leukocytes to ethanol would amplify inflammasome activation, which would help to implicate mechanisms involved in diseases associated with both alcoholism and aberrant NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Here we show that long-term ethanol exposure of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells and a mouse macrophage cell line (J774) amplifies IL-1ß secretion following stimulation with NLRP3 agonists, but not with AIM2 or NLRP1b agonists. The augmented NRLP3 activation was mediated by increases in iNOS expression and NO production, in conjunction with increases in mitochondrial membrane depolarization, oxygen consumption rate, and ROS generation in J774 cells chronically exposed to ethanol (CE cells), effects that could be inhibited by the iNOS inhibitor SEITU, the NO scavenger carboxy-PTIO, and the mitochondrial ROS scavenger MitoQ. Chronic ethanol exposure did not alter K+ efflux or Zn2+ homeostasis in CE cells, although it did result in a lower intracellular concentration of NAD+. Prolonged administration of acetaldehyde, the product of alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) mediated metabolism of ethanol, mimicked chronic ethanol exposure, whereas ADH inhibition prevented ethanol-induced IL-1ß hypersecretion. Together, these results indicate that increases in iNOS and mitochondrial ROS production are critical for chronic ethanol-induced IL-1ß hypersecretion, and that protracted exposure to the products of ethanol metabolism are probable mediators of NLRP3 inflammasome hyperactivation.

Genetic variation in chromosome Y regulates susceptibility to influenza A virus infection.

Males of many species, ranging from humans to insects, are more susceptible than females to parasitic, fungal, bacterial, and viral infections. One mechanism that has been proposed to account for this difference is the immunocompetence handicap model, which posits that the greater infectious disease burden in males is due to testosterone, which drives the development of secondary male sex characteristics at the expense of suppressing immunity. However, emerging data suggest that cell-intrinsic (chromosome X and Y) sex-specific factors also may contribute to the sex differences in infectious disease burden. Using a murine model of influenza A virus (IAV) infection and a panel of chromosome Y (ChrY) consomic strains on the C57BL/6J background, we present data showing that genetic variation in ChrY influences IAV pathogenesis in males. Specific ChrY variants increase susceptibility to IAV in males and augment pathogenic immune responses in the lung, including activation of proinflammatory IL-17-producing γδ T cells, without affecting viral replication. In addition, susceptibility to IAV segregates independent of copy number variation in multicopy ChrY gene families that influence susceptibility to other immunopathological phenotypes, including survival after infection with coxsackievirus B3. These results demonstrate a critical role for genetic variation in ChrY in regulating susceptibility to infectious disease.

DUOX1 mediates persistent epithelial EGFR activation, mucous cell metaplasia, and airway remodeling during allergic asthma.

Chronic inflammation with mucous metaplasia and airway remodeling are hallmarks of allergic asthma, and these outcomes have been associated with enhanced expression and activation of EGFR signaling. Here, we demonstrate enhanced expression of EGFR ligands such as amphiregulin as well as constitutive EGFR activation in cultured nasal epithelial cells from asthmatic subjects compared with nonasthmatic controls and in lung tissues of mice during house dust mite-induced (HDM-induced) allergic inflammation. EGFR activation was associated with cysteine oxidation within EGFR and the nonreceptor tyrosine kinase Src, and both amphiregulin production and oxidative EGFR activation were diminished by pharmacologic or genetic inhibition of the epithelial NADPH oxidase dual oxidase 1 (DUOX1). DUOX1 deficiency also attenuated several EGFR-dependent features of HDM-induced allergic airway inflammation, including neutrophilic inflammation, type 2 cytokine production (IL-33, IL-13), mucous metaplasia, subepithelial fibrosis, and central airway resistance. Moreover, targeted inhibition of airway DUOX1 in mice with previously established HDM-induced allergic inflammation, by intratracheal administration of DUOX1-targeted siRNA or pharmacological NADPH oxidase inhibitors, reversed most of these outcomes. Our findings indicate an important function for DUOX1 in allergic inflammation related to persistent EGFR activation and suggest that DUOX1 targeting may represent an attractive strategy in asthma management.

Ethanol and Other Short-Chain Alcohols Inhibit NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation through Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase Stimulation.

Immunosuppression is a major complication of alcoholism that contributes to increased rates of opportunistic infections and sepsis in alcoholics. The NLRP3 inflammasome, a multiprotein intracellular pattern recognition receptor complex that facilitates the cleavage and secretion of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1ß and IL-18, can be inhibited by ethanol, and we sought to better understand the mechanism through which this occurs and whether chemically similar molecules exert comparable effects. We show that ethanol can specifically inhibit activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, resulting in attenuated IL-1ß and caspase-1 cleavage and secretion, as well as diminished apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD (ASC) speck formation, without affecting potassium efflux, in a mouse macrophage cell line (J774), mouse bone marrow-derived dendritic cells, mouse neutrophils, and human PBMCs. The inhibitory effects on the Nlrp3 inflammasome were independent of γ-aminobutyric acid A receptor activation or N-methyl-d-asparate receptor inhibition but were associated with decreased oxidant production. Ethanol treatment markedly decreased cellular tyrosine phosphorylation, whereas administration of the tyrosine phosphatase inhibitor sodium orthovanadate prior to ethanol restored tyrosine phosphorylation and IL-1ß secretion subsequent to ATP stimulation. Furthermore, sodium orthovanadate-induced phosphorylation of ASC Y144, necessary and sufficient for Nlrp3 inflammasome activation, and secretion of phosphorylated ASC were inhibited by ethanol. Finally, multiple alcohol-containing organic compounds exerted inhibitory effects on the Nlrp3 inflammasome, whereas 2-methylbutane (isopentane), the analogous alkane of the potent inhibitor isoamyl alcohol (isopentanol), did not. Our results demonstrate that ethanol antagonizes the NLRP3 inflammasome at an apical event in its activation through the stimulation of protein tyrosine phosphatases, an effect shared by other short-chain alcohols.