Early childhood aggressive behaviour: Negative interactions with paternal antisocial behaviour and maternal postpartum depressive symptoms across two international cohorts.

BACKGROUND: Early childhood aggressive behaviour is a predictor of future violence. Therefore, identifying risk factors for children's aggressive behaviour is important in understanding underlying mechanisms. Maternal postpartum depression is a known risk factor. However, little research has focused on the influence of paternal behaviour on early childhood aggression and its interaction with maternal postpartum depression. METHODS: This study was performed in two cohorts: the Fathers Project, in the United Kingdom (n = 143) and the Generation R Study, in The Netherlands (n = 549). In both cohorts, we related paternal antisocial personality (ASP) traits and maternal postpartum depressive (PPD) symptoms to childhood aggressive behaviour at age two (Fathers Project) and age three (Generation R Study). We additionally tested whether the presence of paternal ASP traits increased the association between maternal PPD-symptoms and early childhood aggression. RESULTS: The association between paternal ASP traits and early childhood aggressive behaviour, corrected for maternal PPD-symptoms, was similar in magnitude between the cohorts (Fathers Project: standardized ß = 0.12, p = 0.146; Generation R: ß = 0.14, p = 0.001), although the association was not statistically significant in the Fathers Project. Strikingly, and in contrast to our expectations, there was evidence of a negative interaction between paternal ASP traits and maternal PPD-symptoms on childhood aggressive behaviour (Fathers Project: ß = -0.20, p = 0.020; Generation R: ß = -0.09, p = 0.043) in both studies. This meant that with higher levels of paternal ASP traits the association between maternal PPD-symptoms and childhood aggressive behaviour was less and vice versa. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings stress the importance of including both maternal and paternal psychopathology in future studies and interventions focusing on early childhood aggressive behaviour.

Intergenerational transmission of parenting: findings from a UK longitudinal study.

BACKGROUND: The quality of parenting is associated with a wide range of child and adult outcomes, and there is evidence to suggest that some aspects of parenting show patterns of intergenerational transmission. This study aimed to determine whether such intergenerational transmission occurs in mothers and fathers in a UK birth cohort. METHODS: The study sample consisted of 146 mothers and 146 fathers who were recruited from maternity wards in England and followed up for 24 months ['Generation 2' (G2)]. Perceptions of their own parenting [by 'Generation1' (G1)] were assessed from G2 parents at 12 months using the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI). G2 parents were filmed interacting with their 'Generation 3' (G3) children at 24 months. RESULTS: We found that G1 mothers' 'affection' was associated with positive parenting behaviour in the G2 fathers ('positive responsiveness' ß = 0.19, P = 0.04 and 'cognitive stimulation' ß = 0.26, P < 0.01). G1 mothers' 'control' was associated with negative parenting behaviour in G2 mothers (decreased 'engagement' ß = -0.19, P = 0.04), and negative parenting behaviour in G2 fathers (increased 'control' ß = 0.18, P = 0.05). None of the G1 fathers' parenting variables were significantly associated with G2 parenting. CONCLUSIONS: There is evidence of intergenerational transmission of parenting behaviour in this highly educated UK cohort, with reported parenting of grandmothers associated with observed parenting in both mothers and fathers. No association was seen with reported parenting of grandfathers. This raises the possibility that parenting interventions may have benefits that are realised across generations.