Turning the tide on big cat trade: Expert opinion on trends and conservation lessons from the Republic of Korea.

Unsustainable trade in big cats affects all species in the genus, Panthera, and is one of the foremost threats to their conservation. To provide further insight into the impact of policy interventions intended to address this issue, we examine the case study of the Republic of Korea (South Korea), which in the early 1990s was one of the world's largest importers of tiger (Panthera tigris) bone and a major manufacturer of tiger-derived medicinal products. In 1993, South Korea became a Party to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) and introduced a ban on commercial trade in CITES Appendix I-listed big cats a year later. We used an expert-based questionnaire survey and an exploration of the CITES trade database to investigate what has since happened to big cat trade in South Korea. Expert opinion suggested that big cat trade has likely substantially reduced since the early 1990s, as a result of the trade ban and broad socioeconomic changes. However, illegal trade has not been eradicated entirely and we were able to confirm that products reportedly derived from big cats were still publicly available for sale on a range of Korean online marketplaces, sometimes openly. The items most commonly reported by respondents from post-1994 trade and supported by expert-led evidence were tiger and leopard (Panthera pardus) skins and tiger bone wine. Although South Korea may provide a useful case study of a historically significant consumer country for tiger which has made strong progress in addressing unsustainable levels of big cat trade within a short period of time, there remains a need to address recalcitrant small-scale, illegal trade. We also recommend further investigation regarding reports of South Korean nationals being involved in illegal trade in tiger-derived products in Southeast Asia.

Meta-analysis reveals that the effects of precipitation change on soil and litter fauna in forests depend on body size.

Anthropogenic climate change is altering precipitation regimes at a global scale. While precipitation changes have been linked to changes in the abundance and diversity of soil and litter invertebrate fauna in forests, general trends have remained elusive due to mixed results from primary studies. We used a meta-analysis based on 430 comparisons from 38 primary studies to address associated knowledge gaps, (i) quantifying impacts of precipitation change on forest soil and litter fauna abundance and diversity, (ii) exploring reasons for variation in impacts and (iii) examining biases affecting the realism and accuracy of experimental studies. Precipitation reductions led to a decrease of 39% in soil and litter fauna abundance, with a 35% increase in abundance under precipitation increases, while diversity impacts were smaller. A statistical model containing an interaction between body size and the magnitude of precipitation change showed that mesofauna (e.g. mites, collembola) responded most to changes in precipitation. Changes in taxonomic richness were related solely to the magnitude of precipitation change. Our results suggest that body size is related to the ability of a taxon to survive under drought conditions, or to benefit from high precipitation. We also found that most experiments manipulated precipitation in a way that aligns better with predicted extreme climatic events than with predicted average annual changes in precipitation and that the experimental plots used in experiments were likely too small to accurately capture changes for mobile taxa. The relationship between body size and response to precipitation found here has far-reaching implications for our ability to predict future responses of soil biodiversity to climate change and will help to produce more realistic mechanistic soil models which aim to simulate the responses of soils to global change.

Prevalence and perspectives of illegal trade in cacti and succulent plants in the collector community.

Although illegal wildlife trade (IWT) represents a serious threat to biodiversity, research into the prevalence of illegal plant collection and trade remains scarce. Because cacti and succulents are heavily threatened by overcollection for often illegal, international ornamental trade, we surveyed 441 members of the cacti and succulent hobbyist collector community with a mixed quantitative and qualitative approach. We sought to understand collector perspectives on the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) and on the threats IWT poses to cactus and succulent conservation. Most respondents (74% of 401 respondents) stated that illegal collection in cacti and succulents represents a "very serious problem" and that the problem of wild plant collection is increasing (72% of 319 respondents). Most forms of illegal collection and trade were seen as very unacceptable by respondents. Self-reported noncompliance with CITES rules was uncommon (11.2% of 418 respondents); it remains a persistent problem in parts of the cacti and succulent hobbyist community. People engaging in rule breaking, such as transporting plants without required CITES documents, generally did so knowingly. Although 60.6% of 381 respondents regarded CITES as a very important tool for conservation, sentiment toward CITES and its efficacy in helping species conservation was mixed. Collectors in our survey saw themselves as potentially playing important roles in cactus and succulent conservation, but this potential resource remains largely untapped. Our results suggest the need for enhanced consultation with stakeholders in CITES decision-making. For challenging subjects like IWT, developing evidence-based responses demands deep interdisciplinary engagement, including assessing the conservation impact of species listings on CITES appendices.

Aunque el mercado ilegal de especies (MIE) representa una amenaza seria para la biodiversidad, son escasas las investigaciones sobre la prevalencia del intercambio y la colecta ilegal de plantas. Ya que las cactáceas y suculentas están amenazadas seriamente por la sobrecolección, generalmente para el mercado ornamental internacional e ilegal, encuestamos mediante una estrategia cualitativa y cuantitativa a 441 miembros de la comunidad de aficionados a coleccionar estas plantas. Buscamos entender las perspectivas que tienen los coleccionistas sobre la Convención sobre el Comercio Internacional de Fauna y Flora Silvestres (CITES) y sobre las amenazas que el MIE representa para la conservación de las cactáceas y las suculentas. La mayoría de los respondientes (74% de 401) mencionaron que la recolección ilegal de estas plantas representa un "problema muy serio" y que el problema de la recolección de plantas silvestres está en aumento (72% de 319 respondientes). Casi todas las formas de mercado y colecta ilegal fueron consideradas como inaceptables por los respondientes. El no cumplimiento autoreportado de las reglas de la CITES no fue recurrente (11.2% de 418 respondientes), pero permanece como un problema persistente en algunos sectores de la comunidad de aficionados a la colección de estas plantas. Las personas que rompieron las reglas, como con el transporte de plantas sin los documentos CITES requeridos, en su mayoría lo hicieron conscientemente. Aunque el 60.6% de los 381 respondientes consideraron la CITES como una herramienta muy importante para la conservación, los sentimientos hacia ella y su eficiencia en el apoyo a la conservación de especies fueron encontrados. Los coleccionistas de nuestra encuesta se reconocieron como actores potencialmente importantes en la conservación de las cactáceas y las suculentas, pero este recurso potencial permanece desaprovechado en su mayoría. Nuestros resultados sugieren que es necesaria una consulta reforzada con los actores en las decisiones de la CITES. Para temas exigentes como el MIE, el desarrollo de respuestas basadas en evidencias demanda una participación interdisciplinaria profunda, incluyendo la evaluación del impacto de conservación que tienen los listados de especies en los apéndices de CITES. Prevalencia y perspectivas del mercado ilegal de cactáceas y plantas suculentas en la comunidad de coleccionistas.

Nocturnal pollinators strongly contribute to pollen transport of wild flowers in an agricultural landscape.

Dramatic declines in diurnal pollinators have created great scientific interest in plant-pollinator relationships and associated pollination services. Existing literature, however, is generally focused on diurnal pollinating insect taxa, especially on Apidae (Hymenoptera) and Syrphidae (Diptera) pollinators, while nocturnal macro-moths that comprise extremely species-rich flower-visiting families have been largely neglected. Here, we report that in agricultural landscapes, macro-moths can provide unique, highly complex pollen transport links, making them vital components of overall wild plant-pollinator networks in agro-ecosystems. Pollen transport occurred more frequently on the moths' ventral thorax rather than on their mouthparts that have been traditionally targeted for pollen swabbing. Pollen transport loads suggest that nocturnal moths contribute key pollination services for several wild plant families in agricultural landscapes, in addition to providing functional resilience to diurnal networks. Severe declines in richness and abundance of settling moth populations highlight the urgent need to include them in future management and conservation strategies within agricultural landscapes.

Productive Oilseed Rape Strips Supplement Seminatural Field-Margins in Promoting Ground-Dwelling Predatory Invertebrates in Agricultural Landscapes.

Intensively managed flowering crops like canola (Brassicales: Brassicaceae) (oilseed rape, OSR) provide significant short-term nectar resources for pollen consumers. They may also play important roles as annual "service strips" in temporarily promoting predatory invertebrates. We set out to test this assumption by comparing overall and functional group-specific species richness, activity density, and assemblage composition of carabids (Coleoptera: Carabidae) and spiders (Araneae), in three types of service strips-OSR, woody, and grassy strips established in direct vicinity to cropland. OSR strips were found to harbor the highest carabid species richness and activity density of small carabids. The activity density of carabids overall and of omnivorous species, the species richness and activity density of spiders across size classes and feeding strategies were all significantly reduced in woody strips. The percentage of seminatural habitat in the wider landscape was positively linked to the activity density of spiders overall, ground hunting and large spiders, whereas in carabids, positive effects were limited to large species occurring in grassy strips. Habitat type was the main predictor of both carabid and spider assemblage composition. Our results indicate that carabid and spider activity density across functional groups responded more strongly to changes in the landscape composition than the diversity of individual taxonomic groups. For agricultural landscape management, the establishment of habitat mosaics that include regular OSR could promote abundant, species-rich predatory invertebrates particularly in early spring. In contrast, structurally homogenous woody strips represent limited value in promoting the investigated biological pest control agents.

Effects of Plant Diversity, Vegetation Composition, and Habitat Type on Different Functional Trait Groups of Wild Bees in Rural Beijing.

The loss of flower-rich habitats and agricultural intensification have resulted in significant losses of wild bee diversity from agricultural landscapes that is increasingly threatening the pollination of zoochorous agricultural crops and agricultural sustainability. However, the links of different wild bee functional trait groups with habitat types and plant resources in agricultural landscapes remain poorly understood, thus impeding the formulation of effective policies for bee conservation. We therefore analyzed how bees representing different functional groups responded to variations in habitat type, vegetation composition and plant diversity. Natural shrubland sustained the highest diversity in bees overall, in large-sized bees, solitary bees and belowground-nesting bees, while each habitat harbored unique species. In half of the functional bee groups, species were negatively linked to tree coverage and herb coverage, respectively, while plant diversity was positively related to all functional groups except large-sized bees and aboveground-nesting bees. Overall bee abundance was positively related to abundance of plants in the Sympetalae, and negatively related to abundance of plants in the Archichlamydeae. Different bee functional groups showed distinct preferences for different plant communities. In order to conserve the diversity of wild bees across functional groups to optimize associated pollination services, a diverse habitat mosaic, and particularly plant species in Sympetalae need to be promoted in agricultural landscapes. Future studies should aim to enhance our understanding of plant-pollinator associations and specific food requirement of different wild bee species for their effective conservation.

Disentangling effects of abiotic factors and biotic interactions on cross-taxon congruence in species turnover patterns of plants, moths and beetles.

High cross-taxon congruence in species diversity patterns is essential for the use of surrogate taxa in biodiversity conservation, but presence and strength of congruence in species turnover patterns, and the relative contributions of abiotic environmental factors and biotic interaction towards this congruence, remain poorly understood. In our study, we used variation partitioning in multiple regressions to quantify cross-taxon congruence in community dissimilarities of vascular plants, geometrid and arciinid moths and carabid beetles, subsequently investigating their respective underpinning by abiotic factors and biotic interactions. Significant cross-taxon congruence observed across all taxon pairs was linked to their similar responses towards elevation change. Changes in the vegetation composition were closely linked to carabid turnover, with vegetation structure and associated microclimatic conditions proposed causes of this link. In contrast, moth assemblages appeared to be dominated by generalist species whose turnover was weakly associated with vegetation changes. Overall, abiotic factors exerted a stronger influence on cross-taxon congruence across our study sites than biotic interactions. The weak congruence in turnover observed particularly between plants and moths highlights the importance of multi-taxon approaches based on groupings of taxa with similar turnovers, rather than the use of single surrogate taxa or environmental proxies, in biodiversity assessments.

Asymmetric warming significantly affects net primary production, but not ecosystem carbon balances of forest and grassland ecosystems in northern China.

We combine the process-based ecosystem model (Biome-BGC) with climate change-scenarios based on both RegCM3 model outputs and historic observed trends to quantify differential effects of symmetric and asymmetric warming on ecosystem net primary productivity (NPP), heterotrophic respiration (Rh) and net ecosystem productivity (NEP) of six ecosystem types representing different climatic zones of northern China. Analysis of covariance shows that NPP is significant greater at most ecosystems under the various environmental change scenarios once temperature asymmetries are taken into consideration. However, these differences do not lead to significant differences in NEP, which indicates that asymmetry in climate change does not result in significant alterations of the overall carbon balance in the dominating forest or grassland ecosystems. Overall, NPP, Rh and NEP are regulated by highly interrelated effects of increases in temperature and atmospheric CO2 concentrations and precipitation changes, while the magnitude of these effects strongly varies across the six sites. Further studies underpinned by suitable experiments are nonetheless required to further improve the performance of ecosystem models and confirm the validity of these model predictions. This is crucial for a sound understanding of the mechanisms controlling the variability in asymmetric warming effects on ecosystem structure and functioning.

Plant invasions in China - challenges and chances.

Invasive species cause serious environmental and economic harm and threaten global biodiversity. We set out to investigate how quickly invasive plant species are currently spreading in China and how their resulting distribution patterns are linked to socio-economic and environmental conditions. A comparison of the invasive plant species density (log species/log area) reported in 2008 with current data shows that invasive species were originally highly concentrated in the wealthy, southeastern coastal provinces of China, but they are currently rapidly spreading inland. Linear regression models based on the species density and turnover of invasive plants as dependent parameters and principal components representing key socio-economic and environmental parameters as predictors indicate strong positive links between invasive plant density and the overall phytodiversity and associated climatic parameters. Principal components representing socio-economic factors and endemic plant density also show significant positive links with invasive plant density. Urgent control and eradication measures are needed in China's coastal provinces to counteract the rapid inland spread of invasive plants. Strict controls of imports through seaports need to be accompanied by similarly strict controls of the developing horticultural trade and underpinned by awareness campaigns for China's increasingly affluent population to limit the arrival of new invaders. Furthermore, China needs to fully utilize its substantial native phytodiversity, rather than relying on exotics, in current large-scale afforestation projects and in the creation of urban green spaces.

[Diversity of geometrid moth (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) in cropland and reforested semi-natural habitats at different altitudes of Bashang Plateau, Hebei Province of China].

In order to understand the effects of landscape heterogeneity induced by habitat restoration and landform change on the biodiversity in degraded landscapes, an investigation by using light trap was conducted on the geometrid moth (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) diversity in the cropland and reforested semi-natural habitats in three villages at different altitudes of Bashang Plateau in 2006 and 2007. There existed significant differences in the species richness and individual number of geometrid moth between cropland and reforested semi-natural habitats and in the species richness of geometrid moth between the villages at different altitudes, but no significant differences in the individual number of geometrid moth between the villages at different altitudes and in the standardized sparseness index and Fisher' s alpha index between the villages and between the cropland and reforested semi-natural habitats within each village. The non-metric multi-dimensional scaling (NMDS) indicated that the community structure of geometrid moth in different habitats and at different altitudes differed significantly. This study indicated that the landscape heterogeneity induced by land-form change had significant effects on the community structure and diversity of geometrid moth on Bashang Plateau, and, both cropland and reforested semi-natural habitats were the important habits for geometrid moth. It was suggested that to protect the landscape mosaics containing cropland and reforested semi-natural habitats across the varied landform of Bashang Plateau would have significances in the conservation of high gamma-diversity of geometrid moth, but whether the reforestation and creation of semi-natural habitats could improve the biodiversity of geometrid moth should be monitored in long term.

Long-term effects of rainforest disturbance on the nutrient composition of throughfall, organic layer percolate and soil solution at Mt. Kilimanjaro.

At the lower parts of the forest belt at Mt. Kilimanjaro, selective logging has led to a mosaic of mature forest, old secondary forests ( approximately 60 years), and old clearings ( approximately 10 years) covered by shrub vegetation. These variations in the vegetation are reflected by differences in nutrient leaching from the canopy and in both amount and quality of litter reaching the ground, thereby also influencing mineralization rates and the composition of seepage water in litter percolate and soil solution. The aim of this study was to investigate how above- and belowground nutrient dynamics vary between regeneration stages, and if forest regeneration at the clearings is hampered by a deterioration of abiotic site conditions. K, Mg, Ca, Na and N compounds were analysed in rainfall, throughfall, organic layer percolate and the soil solution to a depth of 1.00 m at three clearings, three secondary forest and four mature forest sites. Element fluxes via throughfall showed only small variations among regeneration stages except for K and NO(3)-N. With 57-83 kg ha(-1) a(-1)and 2.6-4.1 kg ha(-1) a(-1) respectively, K and NO(3)-N fluxes via throughfall were significantly higher at the clearings than at the mature forest sites (32-37 and 0.7-1.0 kg ha(-1) a(-1) for K and NO(3)-N). In organic layer percolate and in soil solution at 0.15-m soil depth, concentrations of K, Mg, Ca and N were highest at the clearings. In the organic layer percolate, median K concentrations were e.g. 7.4 mg l(-1) for the clearings but only 1.4 mg l(-1) for the mature forests, and for NO(3)-N, median concentrations were 3.1 mg l(-1) for the clearings but only 0.92 mg l(-1) for the mature forest sites. Still, differences in annual means between clearings and mature forests were not always significant due to a high variability within the clearings. With the exception of NO(3)-N, belowground nutrient concentrations in secondary forests ranged between concentrations in mature forests and clearings. Vegetation type-specific differences decreased with increasing soil depths in the soil solution. Overall, the opening of the forest led to a higher spatial and seasonal variation of nutrient concentrations in the seepage water. These results suggest differences in both mineralization rates and in nutrient budgeting at different regeneration stages. Since nutrient availability was highest at the clearings and no compaction of the soil was observed, deterioration of soil properties did not seem to be the main reason for the impeded regeneration on the clearings.

Changes of soil organic carbon in an intensively cultivated agricultural region: a denitrification-decomposition (DNDC) modelling approach.

Regional modelling of soil organic carbon (SOC) dynamics is important for predicting large-scale patterns in carbon cycling and for assessing potential responses of soil carbon pools to land-use change. However, data uncertainties related to both spatial heterogeneity and small-scale differences in farming practice related to cropping systems affect the accuracy of regional models. A case study is presented from Quzhou County in the North China Plain, an area characterized by highly intensive farming. For this county, the DNDC model was validated using sampling data from 68 sites around the county under generalized farm practices. Unique modelling units based on soil type, soil texture and crop type were created and then used to model the spatial change of SOC under different farming practices. Considering the main factors affecting SOC sequestration, the results indicate that the DNDC model delivers acceptable modelling results at county level. The results show that there is a great potential for SOC sequestration in Quzhou County in its central, southern and eastern parts. Changes in farming practices show a strong effect on carbon sequestration. A very efficient and environmental friendly sequestration of SOC pools could be achieved even by decreasing nitrogen fertilizer inputs, when the amount of straw returned to the field is greatly increased.