Peer Bullying Victimization Trajectories for Sexually and Gender Diverse Youth from Early Childhood to Late Adolescence.

Sexually and gender diverse (SGD) youth experience more peer bullying victimization than heterosexual, cisgender youth during adolescence, yet the emergence and persistence of these disparities remain underexplored. Also, it is unclear which factors are associated with these disparities across development, and how these disparities are linked to late adolescent health discrepancies. This study utilized the sample from the Millennium Cohort Study in Britain (N = 10,080; 51.3% assigned female at birth; Mage = 2.28, SDage = 0.46 at Wave 2), in which 23.74% of youth reported non-heterosexual attraction, 21.59% reported non-heterosexual identity, and 1.08% reported gender identity not in line with the sex assigned at birth. Using latent class growth modeling, four peer bullying victimization trajectories were identified, with early peak (7.2%), late childhood peak (6.3%), adolescence onset (12.8%), and low (73.6%) rates of victimization. SGD youth, compared to heterosexual and cisgender youth, were found to have increased odds of being in the victimization-involved classes, especially the adolescence onset class. The study further revealed that SGD youth reported more mental health and relational difficulties in childhood, which were linked to their heightened risk of longer-lasting victimization. Further, long-term victimization was found to partially account for the disparities in health and well-being for SGD youth in late adolescence. In conclusion, SGD youth were more likely to experience longer-lasting bullying victimization during childhood and adolescence, its related mental and relational vulnerabilities were already established in childhood, and such victimization disparities were further linked to their detrimental health and well-being in late adolescence. The design, hypotheses, and target analyses of the current study were preregistered on 21st April 2023 at https://osf.io/f2zxy .

A Latent Profile Analysis of Social Support, Online Contacts, and Preference for Online Communication Among Same- and Both-Sex Attracted and Other-Sex Attracted Adolescents.

This study aimed to assess differences between other-sex attracted and same- and both-sex attracted adolescents in profiles of peer and family social support, online contacts, and preferences for online communication. Data stem from the 2017 Dutch "Health and Behavior in School-Aged Children" (HBSC) survey (N = 6,823; 4.0% same- and both-sex attracted; M age=14.73, SD = 1.59, range = 12-18). We conducted latent profile analyses to estimate profiles in peer and family social support, online contacts, and preferences for online communication. Then we assessed the association between sexual attraction and profile membership. A five-profile solution fitted the data best. Profiles were characterized as high support, online contact, and average online communication preference (35.6%); high support, low online contact, and weak online communication preference (42.9%); average support, high online contact, and strong online communication preference (9.9%); low support, low online contact, and average online communication preference (6.9%); and low support, average online contact, and average online communication preference (5.0%). Same- and both-sex attracted adolescents had higher odds than other-sex attracted adolescents of being in the latter three profiles than in the first profile. Thus, same- and both-sex attracted adolescents were more likely to report average to low rates of peer and family social support, high to low frequency of online contact, and an average to strong preference for online communication than other-sex attracted adolescents. The average to low levels of support especially influenced these sexual orientation-based differences in profile membership.

Sexual Attraction Disparities in Adolescent Mental Health: The Role of School Norms.

Purpose: Few studies examine whether and how heterosexist norms in schools might influence disparities in mental health between sexual minority and heterosexual adolescents. Addressing this gap, we study disparities in life satisfaction, psychosomatic complaints, and emotional problems between same/both-sex attracted and other-sex attracted adolescents and examine the moderating role of heterosexist norms on the classroom- and school-level. Methods: We used data from the 2013 and 2017 Dutch Health and Behavior in School-Aged Children study (N = 12,756; mean age = 14.02; standard deviation = 1.54). Separate multi-level analyses for life satisfaction, psychosomatic complaints, and emotional problems were conducted in which cross-level interaction effects between sexual attraction and school and classroom-level heterosexist norms were estimated. Results: Same-sex attracted, both-sex attracted, and adolescents unsure about their sexual attraction reported lower life satisfaction, more psychosomatic complaints, and more emotional problems than their other-sex attracted peers. On average, stronger school-level heterosexist norms were associated with higher life satisfaction, fewer psychosomatic complaints, and fewer emotional problems. Stronger classroom-level heterosexist norms were associated with fewer emotional problems. One moderating effect of sexual attraction and school-level heterosexist norms was found. Contrary to expectations, disparities in life satisfaction between same-sex attracted and other-sex attracted adolescents were smaller when classroom-level heterosexist norms were stronger. Standardized regression coefficients showed that the associations were small. Conclusion: Although our findings suggest pressing health disparities between heterosexual and sexual minority adolescents, heterosexist norms at the school and classroom level were weakly associated with these health disparities.

Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity/Expression in Adolescent Research: Two Decades in Review.

There is a long history of research among adolescents who are minoritized and marginalized for their sexual orientation and gender identity/expression (SOGIE). However, it remains unclear how we can best conceptualize and assess SOGIE in adolescence, resulting in different subpopulations and findings across studies. Addressing this issue, we present a narrative literature review of the conceptualization and assessment of SOGIE, and provide recommendations for conceptualizing and operationalizing these concepts. Our review indicated that most research with adolescent populations still almost exclusively assesses isolated dimensions of sexuality and gender (e.g., attraction but not identity). We argue that to make research inclusive and equitable, scholars are required to make clear substantiated decisions and be transparent about the SOGIE dimensions and, thus, subpopulations they represent.

Development and Validation of the Sexual Minority Adolescent Rejection Sensitivity Scale.

Because no measure for sexual orientation-related rejection sensitivity (RS) for adolescents exists, we aimed to develop and validate the Sexual Minority Adolescent Rejection Sensitivity Scale (SMA-RSS). In Study 1, interviews with 22 sexual minority youth were conducted (M age = 18.86, SD = 3.03). Based on these interviews, 29 scenarios were developed as potential items for the SMA-RSS. In Study 2, exploratory factor analyses were conducted on these 29 scenarios in a sample of 397 sexual minority adolescents (M age = 16.63, SD = 1.07). The 14 best performing items were selected and a two-factor structure best fit the data. In Study 3, a confirmatory factor analysis was conducted and the test-retest reliability, criterion validity, convergent validity, and incremental validity of the SMA-RSS were assessed in a sample of 499 sexual minority adolescents (M age = 16.61, SD = 1.34). A bifactor model best fit the data and evidence was provided for a strong enough general factor to justify unidimensionality. For criterion validity, the SMA-RSS evidenced small to moderate correlations with minority stressors and mental health indicators. For convergent validity, we found a moderate correlation with general RS. For incremental validity, the SMA-RSS was associated with mental health indicators over and above minority stressors and general RS. Participants were moderately stable in their scores on the SMA-RSS over a one-month period. Taken together, the SMA-RSS captured unique situations in which sexual minority adolescents anxiously expect rejection and can aid in better understanding health disparities among sexual minority adolescents.

Moderating role of coping in the association between minority stress and suicidal ideation and suicide attempts among sexual and gender minority young adults.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined associations of minority stressors (i.e., victimization, internalized homonegativity, and stigma consciousness), and coping styles (i.e., active, avoidant, and passive) with suicidal ideation and suicide attempts (suicidality) among sexual and gender minority (SGM) young adults, and whether coping style moderated these associations. METHODS: Logistic regression analyses examined these associations among 1432 SGM young adults (ages 18-29). RESULTS: Minority stressors and passive coping were associated with a higher likelihood of suicidality. Avoidant coping was associated with a lower likelihood of lifetime suicidal ideation and attempts among sexual minority participants, and active coping with a lower likelihood of past-year suicidal ideation among sexual minority participants. Moderation analyses among sexual minority participants showed that when avoidant coping was high, associations between low victimization (compared with no victimization) and lifetime suicide attempts, and stigma consciousness and lifetime suicide attempts became non-significant, and the association between internalized homonegativity and lifetime suicide attempts became significant. Among gender minority participants, when passive coping was high the association between low victimization and lifetime suicidal ideation became significant. CONCLUSION: This study underlines the importance of minority stress and coping for suicidality among SGM young adults and the need for more research regarding the role of coping.

Increased risks for mental disorders among LGB individuals: cross-national evidence from the World Mental Health Surveys.

PURPOSE: Lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) individuals, and LB women specifically, have an increased risk for psychiatric morbidity, theorized to result from stigma-based discrimination. To date, no study has investigated the mental health disparities between LGB and heterosexual AQ1individuals in a large cross-national population-based comparison. The current study addresses this gap by examining differences between LGB and heterosexual participants in 13 cross-national surveys, and by exploring whether these disparities were associated with country-level LGBT acceptance. Since lower social support has been suggested as a mediator of sexual orientation-based differences in psychiatric morbidity, our secondary aim was to examine whether mental health disparities were partially explained by general social support from family and friends. METHODS: Twelve-month prevalence of DSM-IV anxiety, mood, eating, disruptive behavior, and substance disorders was assessed with the WHO Composite International Diagnostic Interview in a general population sample across 13 countries as part of the World Mental Health Surveys. Participants were 46,889 adults (19,887 males; 807 LGB-identified). RESULTS: Male and female LGB participants were more likely to report any 12-month disorder (OR 2.2, p < 0.001 and OR 2.7, p < 0.001, respectively) and most individual disorders than heterosexual participants. We found no evidence for an association between country-level LGBT acceptance and rates of psychiatric morbidity between LGB and heterosexualAQ2 participants. However, among LB women, the increased risk for mental disorders was partially explained by lower general openness with family, although most of the increased risk remained unexplained. CONCLUSION: These results provide cross-national evidence for an association between sexual minority status and psychiatric morbidity, and highlight that for women, but not men, this association was partially mediated by perceived openness with family. Future research into individual-level and cross-national sexual minority stressors is needed.

Minority Stress and Suicidal Ideation and Suicide Attempts Among LGBT Adolescents and Young Adults: A Meta-Analysis.

Purpose: This meta-analytic study examined associations between minority stressors and suicidal ideation and suicide attempts among LGBT adolescents and young adults (aged 12-25 years). Methods: Identified studies were screened using the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Studies had to include an association between a minority stressor and a suicidality outcome and were categorized into 10 meta-analyses. Overall effect sizes were calculated using three-level meta-analyses. In addition, moderation by sampling strategy was examined. Results: A total of 44 studies were included. Overall, LGBT bias-based victimization, general victimization, bullying, and negative family treatment were significantly associated with suicidal ideation and/or suicide attempts. Associations of discrimination and internalized homophobia and transphobia with suicidal ideation and/or suicide attempts were not significant. No moderation effects were found for sampling strategy. Conclusion: Although overall effect sizes were small, our meta-analytic study shows a clear link between various types of minority stressors and suicidal ideation and suicide attempts among LGBT adolescents and young adults.

Sexual and Gender Identity-Based Microaggressions: Differences by Sexual and Gender Identity, and Sex Assigned at Birth Among Dutch Youth.

Research describes several sexual and gender identity-based microaggressions that sexual and gender minority (SGM) people might experience. We aimed to examine the occurrence of different sexual and gender identity-based microaggressions among SGM youth and to identify differences by sexual and gender identity, and sex assigned at birth. Open-ended questions about daily experiences were coded for 16 types of sexual and gender identity-based microaggressions in two daily diary studies among Dutch SGM youth (Study 1: N = 90, M age = 17.64 SD = 1.78; Study 2: N = 393, M age = 18.36 SD = 2.65). Several types of microaggressions were identified, and there was sizable variability in the reported frequency. Overall, lesbian women and bisexual youth were less likely to report microaggressions than gay youth. Bisexual youth were less likely to report use of heterosexist or transphobic terminology than gay youth and youth assigned male at birth were less likely to report invalidation of LGBTQ identity than youth assigned female at birth. Last, gender minority youth were more likely to report familial microaggressions, invalidation of LGBTQ identity, and threatening behaviors than cisgender youth. Overall, this study provides empirical support using mixed qualitative and quantitative methods for theorized typologies of microaggressions among Dutch SGM youth.

Disparities in Perpetrators, Locations, and Reports of Victimization for Sexual and Gender Minority Adolescents.

PURPOSE: Sexual and gender minority (SGM) adolescents are more likely to become victims of bullying and harassment than heterosexual, cisgender adolescents, but little is known about the contextual details of these victimization experiences. This study aims to examine by whom and where adolescents are bullied or harassed, to whom adolescents report such victimization, and whether these experiences differ between SGM and heterosexual, cisgender adolescents. METHODS: Participants in this nationally representative study were 29,879 students (mean age = 14.1) from 136 Dutch middle/high schools across grades 7-12 (14.5% sexual minority, 2.7% gender minority) who completed a survey about their school-based experiences. RESULTS: Perpetrators of victimization of SGM students were more often teachers and school staff compared with heterosexual, cisgender adolescents. Furthermore, SGM students experienced victimization in private locations (in the rest- or changing rooms/parking lots, at home), more often than heterosexual, cisgender students. Finally, SGM students felt less safe than their heterosexual, cisgender peers to report these experiences to teachers or parents, and were more likely to report their experiences to the police or the school janitor. SGM students who reported victimization experiences were less likely to receive support: the problems were less often acted on and persisted more often than those of heterosexual, cisgender students. CONCLUSIONS: SGM adolescents are not only victimized more often, but also by different perpetrators (teachers, other school staff) and in more private places. Their victimization is also less likely to be recognized or acted on by those responsible for adolescent's safety: teachers or parents.

Childhood trauma and bullying-victimization as an explanation for differences in mental disorders by sexual orientation.

Sexual minority individuals are more likely to have mental disorders, including mood, anxiety, and substance use disorders, compared to heterosexual individuals. Whether experiencing trauma or bullying-victimization during childhood explains these differences is currently unclear. We used a psychiatric epidemiological general population-based study to assess whether childhood trauma severity and bullying-victimization before age 16 explains the difference by sexual attraction in mental disorders. Data from the Netherlands Mental Health Survey and Incidence Study-2 (NEMESIS-2; N = 6392) were used to examine (1) whether same/both-sex attraction and predominantly other-sex attraction is linked to self-reports of childhood trauma (types and severity) and bullying-victimization, and (2) whether these experiences explain differences between these groups in lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-IV disorders assessed by the Composite International Diagnostic Interview 3.0. Same/both-sex attracted individuals reported a higher childhood trauma severity score compared to exclusively other-sex attracted individuals (B = 0.93, SE = 0.20, p < .001), and were more likely to report bullying-victimization (OR = 2.51 95%CI[1.68, 3.74]). DSM-IV disorders were more prevalent among same/both-sex attracted individuals than among exclusively other-sex attracted individuals (ORs ranged from 1.57 to 4.68). There were no differences in DSM-IV disorders for predominantly other-sex attracted individuals. Childhood trauma severity explained between 9.0% and 57.0% of significant indirect associations between same/both-sex attraction and DSM-IV disorders. Sexual minority individuals experience more types of, and more severe childhood trauma, and are more likely to experience bullying-victimization. These negative experiences partly explained disparities in mental disorders.

Profiles and Predictors of Dating Violence Among Sexual and Gender Minority Adolescents.

PURPOSE: Sexual and gender minority adolescents report higher levels of dating violence compared with their heterosexual and cisgender peers. The objectives of the present study were to (1) identify latent profiles of dating violence; (2) examine if sexual and gender minority adolescents were particularly vulnerable to certain profiles of dating violence; and (3) explore how experiences of peer victimization, discrimination, and parental maltreatment explained this greater vulnerability. METHODS: High school students in Grades 9 and 11 from the 2016 Minnesota Student Survey (N = 87,532; mean age = 15.29 years, SD = 1.23) were asked about their sexual and gender identities, their gender nonconformity, their experiences of verbal, physical, and sexual dating violence victimization and perpetration, as well their experiences of childhood maltreatment, peer victimization, and gender-based and sexual minority status-based discrimination. RESULTS: Multinomial logistic regression analysis in a three-step latent class analysis procedure suggested five profiles of dating violence victimization and perpetration across the entire sample. Sexual and gender minority adolescents were generally more likely to be in classes high in dating violence victimization, perpetration, or both, compared with their heterosexual and cisgender peers. Gender nonconformity was also associated with greater risk for being in high dating violence classes. These differences, however, were generally nonsignificant when the social stressors of childhood maltreatment, peer victimization, and experiences of discrimination were accounted for. CONCLUSIONS: Although findings suggested greater vulnerability for dating violence among sexual and gender minority adolescents, they underscore the importance of how minority stressors generally accounted for this greater vulnerability for dating violence.

Help-Seeking Patterns Among LGBTQ Young Adults Exposed to Intimate Partner Violence Victimization.

Although intimate partner violence (IPV) is highly prevalent among lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) young adults, only little is known regarding gender identity disparities in this population. Furthermore, virtually no research has examined IPV-related help-seeking patterns among LGBTQ young adults, including whether there are gender identity disparities in these rates and whether specific services are most likely to be used by LGBTQ young adults across IPV type. Participants were 354 LGBTQ young adults (ages: 18-25, 33.6% transgender and gender nonconforming [TGNC]) who experienced IPV victimization during their lifetime. TGNC young adults experienced more identity abuse victimization and reported 2.06 times the odds of seeking medical services, 2.15 times the odds of seeking support services, and 1.66 times the odds of seeking mental health services compared to cisgender sexual minority young adults. LGBTQ young adults with physical abuse victimization reported 2.63 times the odds of seeking mental health services, 2.93 times the odds of seeking medical care, and 2.40 times the odds of seeking support services compared to LGBTQ young adults without physical abuse victimization. Finally, LGBTQ young adults with identity abuse reported 2.08 times the odds of seeking mental health services and 2.58 times the odds of seeking support services compared to LGBTQ young adults without identity abuse. These findings provide a more complete understanding of gender identity as both risk and protective factors for IPV and IPV-related help-seeking. This study also provides implications for training providers, service availability, and resource allocation for LGBTQ young adults with IPV victimization.

Gay-Straight Alliances, School Functioning, and Mental Health: Associations for Students of Color and LGBTQ Students.

Utilizing a school-based sample of 895,218 students aged 10-18 years old, we examine differences in students' school functioning, substance use, and mental health in schools with and without Gay-Straight Alliances (GSAs). In addition, we examine whether GSA presence is associated with these outcomes for students of color and LGBTQ students. Overall, students in schools with GSAs were found to report better school functioning, lower substance use, and better mental health. For students of color, the association between the presence of a GSA and mental health and substance use was not as strong as it was for non-Hispanic white students. Further, for LGBTQ students, the association between the presence of a GSA and school functioning was not as strong as it was for non-LGBTQ students. Future research is necessary to ascertain the function of GSAs, especially for marginalized youth.

Characteristics of Schools With and Without Gay-Straight Alliances.

Research shows that Gay-Straight Alliances (GSAs) are associated with school climate and student well-being, but it is unclear what school characteristics may account for some of these findings. The current study describes characteristics of schools with and without GSAs. Using a population-based sample of 1360 California public high schools, inferential statistics show that schools with larger enrollment, more experienced teachers, and lower pupil/teacher ratios were more likely to have GSAs. In addition, among schools with GSAs, larger enrollment, more experienced teachers, fewer socioeconomically disadvantaged students, and higher academic achievement are among the factors related to a longer presence of GSAs. Implications for GSA and policy implementation, as well as the importance of accounting for school characteristics in research on GSAs are discussed.

Disparities in Persistent Victimization and Associated Internalizing Symptoms for Heterosexual Versus Sexual Minority Youth.

This study investigated whether lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) adolescents were at higher risk for persistent victimization of bullying compared to heterosexual adolescents, and how victimization trajectories were associated with internalizing symptom development across LGB and heterosexual adolescents. Data came from a five-wave study (Mage T1 = 11.1 to Mage T5 = 22.3; n = 151 LGB; n = 1,275 heterosexual) and informants were adolescents and their parents. Adolescents were classified in three victimization trajectories: persistent (5.6%), decreasing (28.1%) or low (66.3%) victimization. LGB adolescents reported more persistent victimization, relative to no (OR = 6.79, 95% CI [3.52, 13.13]) or decreasing victimization (OR = 3.09, 95% CI [1.53, 6.24]), compared to heterosexual peers. Further, persistent victimization was more strongly associated with anxiety among LGB than among heterosexual adolescents.

LGBTQ Youth in Unstable Housing and Foster Care.

: media-1vid110.1542/5984244876001PEDS-VA_2017-4211Video Abstract BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning (LGBTQ) youth are suggested to be overrepresented in unstable housing and foster care. In the current study, we assess whether LGBTQ youth are overrepresented in unstable housing and foster care and examine disparities in school functioning, substance use, and mental health for LGBTQ youth versus heterosexual youth in unstable housing and foster care. METHODS: A total of 895 218 students (10-18 years old) completed the cross-sectional California Healthy Kids Survey from 2013 to 2015. Surveys were administered in 2641 middle and high schools throughout California. Primary outcome measures included school functioning (eg, school climate, absenteeism), substance use, and mental health. RESULTS: More youth living in foster care (30.4%) and unstable housing (25.3%) self-identified as LGBTQ than youth in a nationally representative sample (11.2%). Compared with heterosexual youth and youth in stable housing, LGBTQ youth in unstable housing reported poorer school functioning (Bs = -0.10 to 0.40), higher substance use (Bs = 0.26-0.28), and poorer mental health (odds ratios = 0.73-0.80). LGBTQ youth in foster care reported more fights in school (B = 0.16), victimization (B = 0.10), and mental health problems (odds ratios = 0.82-0.73) compared with LGBTQ youth in stable housing and heterosexual youth in foster care. CONCLUSIONS: Disparities for LGBTQ youth are exacerbated when they live in foster care or unstable housing. This points to a need for protections for LGBTQ youth in care and care that is affirming of their sexual orientation and gender identity.