KDM5A/B contribute to HIV-1 latent infection and survival of HIV-1 infected cells.

Combinational antiretroviral therapy (cART) suppresses human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) viral replication and pathogenesis in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) patients. However, HIV-1 remains in the latent stage of infection by suppressing viral transcription, which hinders an HIV-1 cure. One approach for an HIV-1 cure is the "shock and kill" strategy. The strategy focuses on reactivating latent HIV-1, inducing the viral cytopathic effect and facilitating the immune clearance for the elimination of latent HIV-1 reservoirs. Here, we reported that the H3K4 trimethylation (H3K4me3)-specific demethylase KDM5A/B play a role in suppressing HIV-1 Tat/LTR-mediated viral transcription in HIV-1 latent cells. Furthermore, we evaluated the potential of KDM5-specific inhibitor JQKD82 as an HIV-1 "shock and kill" agent. Our results showed that JQKD82 increases the H3K4me3 level at HIV-1 5' LTR promoter regions, HIV-1 reactivation, and the cytopathic effects in an HIV-1-latent T cell model. In addition, we identified that the combination of JQKD82 and AZD5582, a non-canonical NF-κB activator, generates a synergistic impact on inducing HIV-1 lytic reactivation and cell death in the T cell. The latency-reversing potency of the JQKD82 and AZD5582 pair was also confirmed in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) isolated from HIV-1 aviremic patients and in an HIV-1 latent monocyte. In latently infected microglia (HC69) of the brain, either deletion or inhibition of KDM5A/B results in a reversal of the HIV-1 latency. Overall, we concluded that KDM5A/B function as a host repressor of the HIV-1 lytic reactivation and thus promote the latency and the survival of HIV-1 infected reservoirs.

Pro Inflammatory Cytokines Profiles of Patients With Long COVID Differ Between Variant Epochs.

BACKGROUND: Over 30% of patients with COVID-19 have persistent symptoms that last beyond 30 days and referred to as Long COVID. Long COVID has been associated with a persistent elevation in peripheral cytokines including interleukin-6, interleukin-1ß, and tumor necrosis factor-α. This study reports cytokine profiles of patients in our clinic across SARS-COV-2 variant epochs. METHODS: The clinical cytokine panel was analyzed in patients with Long COVID during periods that were stratified according to variant epoch. The 4 variant epochs were defined as: (1) wild-type through alpha, (2) alpha/beta/gamma, (3) delta, and (4) omicron variants. RESULTS: A total of 390 patients had the clinical cytokine panel performed; the median age was 48 years (IQR 38-59) and 62% were female. Distribution by variant was wild-type and alpha, 50% (n = 196); alpha/beta/gamma, 7.9% (n = 31); delta, 18% (n = 72); and omicron, 23% (n = 91). Time to cytokine panel testing was significantly longer for the earlier epochs. Tumor necrosis factor-α (P < .001) and interleukin 1ß (P < .001) were significantly more elevated in the earlier epochs (median of 558 days in wild-type through Alpha epoch vs 263 days in omicron epoch, P < .001)). Nucleocapsid antibodies were consistently detected across epochs. DISCUSSION: When stratified by variant epoch, patients with early epoch Long COVID had persistently elevated peripheral pro-inflammatory cytokine levels when compared to later epoch Long COVID. Patients with Long COVID have similar clusters of symptoms across epochs, suggesting that the underlying pathology is independent of the peripheral cytokine signature.

Dynamic modulation of the non-canonical NF-κB signaling pathway for HIV shock and kill.

HIV cure still remains an elusive target. The "Shock and Kill" strategy which aims to reactivate HIV from latently infected cells and subsequently kill them through virally induced apoptosis or immune mediated clearance, is the subject of widespread investigation. NF-κB is a ubiquitous transcription factor which serves as a point of confluence for a number of intracellular signaling pathways and is also a crucial regulator of HIV transcription. Due to its relatively lower side effect profile and proven role in HIV transcription, the non-canonical NF-κB pathway has emerged as an attractive target for HIV reactivation, as a first step towards eradication. A comprehensive review examining this pathway in the setting of HIV and its potential utility to cure efforts is currently lacking. This review aims to summarize non-canonical NF-κB signaling and the importance of this pathway in HIV shock-and-kill efforts.

Maternal SARS-CoV-2 infection in pregnancy disrupts gene expression in Hofbauer cells with limited impact on cytotrophoblasts.

BACKGROUND: Hofbauer cells (HBCs) and cytotrophoblasts (CTBs) are major cell populations in placenta. The indirect impact of maternal SARS-CoV-2 disease on these cells that are not directly infected has not been extensively studied. Herein, we profiled gene expression in HBCs and CTBs isolated from placentae of recovered pregnant subjects infected with SARS-CoV-2 during all trimesters of pregnancy, placentae from subjects with active infection, SARS-CoV-2 vaccinated subjects, and those who were unexposed to the virus. METHODS: Placentae were collected within 4 h post-delivery and membrane-free tissues were enzymatically digested for the isolation of HBCs and CTBs. RNA extracted from HBCs and CTBs were sequenced using 150bp paired-end reads. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified by DESeq2 package in R and enriched in GO Biological Processes, KEGG Pathway, Reactome Gene Sets, Hallmark Gene Sets, and Canonical Pathways. Protein-protein interactions among the DEGs were modelled using STRING and BioGrid. RESULTS: Pregnant subjects (n = 30) were recruited and categorized into six groups: infected with SARS-CoV-2 in i) the first (1T, n = 4), ii) second (2T, n = 5), iii) third (3T, n = 5) trimester, iv) tested positive at delivery (Delivery, n = 5), v) never infected (Control, n = 6), and vi) fully mRNA-vaccinated by delivery (Vaccinated, n = 5). Compared to the Control group, gene expression analysis showed that HBCs from infected subjects had significantly altered gene expression profiles, with the 2T group having the highest number of DEGs (1,696), followed by 3T and 1T groups (1,656 and 958 DEGs, respectively). These DEGs were enriched for pathways involved in immune regulation for host defense, including production of cytokines, chemokines, antimicrobial proteins, ribosomal assembly, neutrophil degranulation inflammation, morphogenesis, and cell migration/adhesion. Protein-protein interaction analysis mapped these DEGs with oxidative phosphorylation, translation, extracellular matrix organization, and type I interferon signaling. Only 95, 23, and 8 DEGs were identified in CTBs of 1T, 2T, and 3T groups, respectively. Similarly, 11 and 3 DEGs were identified in CTBs and HBCs of vaccinated subjects, respectively. Reassuringly, mRNA vaccination did not induce an inflammatory response in placental cells. CONCLUSIONS: Our studies demonstrate a significant impact of indirect SARS-CoV-2 infection on gene expression of inner mesenchymal HBCs, with limited effect on lining CTB cells isolated from pregnant subjects infected and recovered from SARS-CoV-2. The pathways associated with these DEGs identify potential targets for therapeutic intervention.

Ink-spiring innovations: 3D bioprinting skin models for disease discovery.

Tweetable abstract Inflammatory skin diseases account for most chronic skin conditions. 3D bioprinting is an exciting technology that can revolutionize the understanding and approach to treatment of atopic dermatitis and graft-versus-host disease.

Vertical Transmission of SARS-CoV-2-Specific Antibodies and Cytokine Profiles in Pregnancy.

Despite intensive characterization of immune responses after COVID-19 infection and vaccination, research examining protective correlates of vertical transmission in pregnancy are limited. Herein, we profiled humoral and cellular characteristics in pregnant women infected or vaccinated at different trimesters and in their corresponding newborns. We noted a significant correlation between spike S1-specific IgG antibody and its RBD-ACE2 blocking activity (receptor-binding domain-human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2) in maternal and cord plasma (P < .001, R > 0.90). Blocking activity of spike S1-specific IgG was significantly higher in pregnant women infected during the third trimester than the first and second trimesters. Elevated levels of 28 cytokines/chemokines, mainly proinflammatory, were noted in maternal plasma with infection at delivery, while cord plasma with maternal infection 2 weeks before delivery exhibited the emergence of anti-inflammatory cytokines. Our data support vertical transmission of protective SARS-CoV-2-specific antibodies. This vertical antibody transmission and the presence of anti-inflammatory cytokines in cord blood may offset adverse outcomes of inflammation in exposed newborns.

Optimizing single cell proteomics using trapped ion mobility spectrometry for label-free experiments.

Although single cell RNA-seq has had a tremendous impact on biological research, a corresponding technology for unbiased mass spectrometric analysis of single cells has only recently become available. Significant technological breakthroughs including miniaturized sample handling have enabled proteome profiling of single cells. Furthermore, trapped ion mobility spectrometry (TIMS) in combination with parallel accumulation-serial fragmentation operated in data-dependent acquisition mode (DDA-PASEF) allowed improved proteome coverage from low-input samples. It has been demonstrated that modulating the ion flux in TIMS affects the overall performance of proteome profiling. However, the effect of TIMS settings on the analysis of low-input samples has been less investigated. Thus, we sought to optimize the conditions of TIMS with regard to ion accumulation/ramp times and ion mobility range for low-input samples. We observed that an ion accumulation time of 180 ms and monitoring a narrower ion mobility range from 0.7 to 1.3 V s cm-2 resulted in a substantial gain in the depth of proteome coverage and in detecting proteins with low abundance. We used these optimized conditions for proteome profiling of sorted human primary T cells, which yielded an average of 365, 804, 1116, and 1651 proteins from single, five, ten, and forty T cells, respectively. Notably, we demonstrated that the depth of proteome coverage from a low number of cells was sufficient to delineate several essential metabolic pathways and the T cell receptor signaling pathway. Finally, we showed the feasibility of detecting post-translational modifications including phosphorylation and acetylation from single cells. We believe that such an approach could be applied to label-free analysis of single cells obtained from clinically relevant samples.

Secreted ORF8 induces monocytic pro-inflammatory cytokines through NLRP3 pathways in patients with severe COVID-19.

Despite extensive research, the specific factor associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection that mediates the life-threatening inflammatory cytokine response in patients with severe COVID-19 remains unidentified. Herein we demonstrate that the virus-encoded Open Reading Frame 8 (ORF8) protein is abundantly secreted as a glycoprotein in vitro and in symptomatic patients with COVID-19. ORF8 specifically binds to the NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) in CD14+ monocytes to induce inflammasomal cytokine/chemokine responses including IL1ß, IL8, and CCL2. Levels of ORF8 protein in the blood correlate with severity and disease-specific mortality in patients with acute SARS-CoV-2 infection. Furthermore, the ORF8-induced inflammasome response was readily inhibited by the NLRP3 inhibitor MCC950 in vitro. Our study identifies a dominant cause of pathogenesis, its underlying mechanism, and a potential new treatment strategy for severe COVID-19.

Paediatric safety assessment of BNT162b2 vaccination in a multistate hospital-based electronic health record system in the USA: a retrospective analysis.

BACKGROUND: The emergency use authorisation of BNT162b2 (tozinameran; Comirnaty, Pfizer-BioNTech) for children aged 5-17 years has resulted in rapid vaccination in the paediatric population. However, there are few studies of adverse events associated with vaccination in children. The aim of this study was to systematically assess the adverse events of two-dose BNT162b2 vaccination in the paediatric population. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective analysis of patient electronic health records (EHRs) of children aged 5-17 years who received the primary two-dose series of the BNT162b2 vaccine between Jan 5, 2021, and Aug 5, 2022, at the Mayo Clinic Health System (MN, FL, AZ, IA, and WI), USA. Using natural language processing, we automatically curated adverse events reported by physicians in EHR clinical notes before and after vaccination. To determine significant adverse events after BNT162b2 vaccination, we calculated risk differences, which was defined as the percentage difference between the rate of children with an adverse event after a vaccine dose and the baseline rate of children with an adverse event before vaccination. 95% CIs and p values were calculated using the Miettinen and Nurminen score method. FINDINGS: 56 436 individuals aged 5-17 years (20 227 aged 5-11 years and 36 209 aged 12-17 years) with EHRs in the Mayo Clinic Health Systems were included in the study. Overall, the reporting of adverse events remained low in passive surveillance. Serious adverse events were rare after the first and second doses of BNT162b2, with rates of anaphylaxis (six [0·01%] of 56 436), myocarditis (five [0·01%]), and pericarditis (three [0·01%]) consistent with previous studies. Among the 20 227 5-11-year-olds, there were increased risks of fatigue (58 after second dose vs 41 before first dose; risk difference [RD]dose2 0·08% [95% CI -0·01 to 0·18], p=0·044) and fever (104 after second dose vs 77 before first dose; RDdose2 0·13% [0·00 to 0·27], p=0·022) after the second dose. Among the 36 209 12-17-year-olds, there were increased risks of arthralgia (69 after second dose vs 48 before first dose; RDdose2 0·06% [-0·00 to 0·12], p=0·026), chills (58 after second dose vs 40 before first dose; RDdose2 0·05% [-0·00 to 0·11], p=0·034), and myalgia (96 after second dose vs 73 before first dose; RDdose2 0·06% [-0·01 to 0·14], p=0·038) after the second dose. Although the overall incidence was low, there was an increased risk of myocarditis in males aged 12-17 years after the second dose (five after second dose vs zero before first dose; RDdose2 0·03% [0·01 to 0·07], p=0·013), with median age being 15 years (IQR 14 to 16). INTERPRETATION: Overall, this data suggests that vaccination with BNT162b2 in the paediatric population is generally safe and well-tolerated. Further research is warranted to investigate the basis for the increased risk of myocarditis in adolescent males. Additionally, further studies are needed to confirm whether the findings in our study population apply to the whole vaccinated paediatric population. FUNDING: nference.

Expanding repertoire of SARS-CoV-2 deletion mutations contributes to evolution of highly transmissible variants.

The emergence of highly transmissible SARS-CoV-2 variants and vaccine breakthrough infections globally mandated the characterization of the immuno-evasive features of SARS-CoV-2. Here, we systematically analyzed 2.13 million SARS-CoV-2 genomes from 188 countries/territories (up to June 2021) and performed whole-genome viral sequencing from 102 COVID-19 patients, including 43 vaccine breakthrough infections. We identified 92 Spike protein mutations that increased in prevalence during at least one surge in SARS-CoV-2 test positivity in any country over a 3-month window. Deletions in the Spike protein N-terminal domain were highly enriched for these 'surge-associated mutations' (Odds Ratio = 14.19, 95% CI 6.15-32.75, p value = 3.41 × 10-10). Based on a longitudinal analysis of mutational prevalence globally, we found an expanding repertoire of Spike protein deletions proximal to an antigenic supersite in the N-terminal domain that may be one of the key contributors to the evolution of highly transmissible variants. Finally, we generated clinically annotated SARS-CoV-2 whole genome sequences from 102 patients and identified 107 unique mutations, including 78 substitutions and 29 deletions. In five patients, we identified distinct deletions between residues 85-90, which reside within a linear B cell epitope. Deletions in this region arose contemporaneously on a diverse background of variants across the globe since December 2020. Overall, our findings based on genomic-epidemiology and clinical surveillance suggest that the genomic deletion of dispensable antigenic regions in SARS-CoV-2 may contribute to the evasion of immune responses and the evolution of highly transmissible variants.

C reactive protein utilisation, a biomarker for early COVID-19 treatment, improves lenzilumab efficacy: results from the randomised phase 3 'LIVE-AIR' trial.

OBJECTIVE: COVID-19 severity is correlated with granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and C reactive protein (CRP) levels. In the phase three LIVE-AIR trial, lenzilumab an anti-GM-CSF monoclonal antibody, improved the likelihood of survival without ventilation (SWOV) in COVID-19, with the greatest effect in participants having baseline CRP below a median of 79 mg/L. Herein, the utility of baseline CRP to guide lenzilumab treatment was assessed. DESIGN: A subanalysis of the randomised, blinded, controlled, LIVE-AIR trial in which lenzilumab or placebo was administered on day 0 and participants were followed through Day 28. PARTICIPANTS: Hospitalised COVID-19 participants (N=520) with SpO2 ≤94% on room air or requiring supplemental oxygen but not invasive mechanical ventilation. INTERVENTIONS: Lenzilumab (1800 mg; three divided doses, q8h, within 24 hours) or placebo infusion alongside corticosteroid and remdesivir treatments. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary endpoint was the time-to-event analysis difference in SWOV through day 28 between lenzilumab and placebo treatments, stratified by baseline CRP. RESULTS: SWOV was achieved in 152 (90%; 95% CI 85 to 94) lenzilumab and 144 (79%; 72 to 84) placebo-treated participants with baseline CRP <150 mg/L (HR: 2.54; 95% CI 1.46 to 4.41; p=0.0009) but not with CRP ≥150 mg/L (HR: 1.04; 95% CI 0.51 to 2.14; p=0.9058). A statistically significant interaction between CRP and lenzilumab treatment was observed (p=0.044). Grade ≥3 adverse events with lenzilumab were comparable to placebo in both CRP strata. No treatment-emergent serious adverse events were attributed to lenzilumab. CONCLUSION: Hospitalised hypoxemic patients with COVID-19 with baseline CRP <150 mg/L derived the greatest clinical benefit from treatment with lenzilumab. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT04351152; ClinicalTrials.gov.

Prime, shock and kill: BCL-2 inhibition for HIV cure.

While modern HIV therapy can effectively suppress viral replication, the persistence of the latent reservoir posits the greatest hurdle to complete cure. The "shock and kill" strategy is under investigation for HIV therapy, aiming to reactivate latent HIV, and subsequently eliminate it through anti-retroviral therapy and host immune function. However, thus far, studies have yielded suboptimal results, stemming from a combination of ineffective latency reversal and poor immune clearance. Concomitantly, studies have now revealed the importance of the BCL-2 anti-apoptotic protein as a critical mediator of infected cell survival, reservoir maintenance and immune evasion in HIV. Furthermore, BCL-2 inhibitors are now recognized for their anti-HIV effects in pre-clinical studies. This minireview aims to examine the intersection of BCL-2 inhibition and current shock and kill efforts, hoping to inform future studies which may ultimately yield a cure for HIV.

The BCL-2 Inhibitor Venetoclax Augments Immune Effector Function Mediated by Fas Ligand, TRAIL, and Perforin/Granzyme B, Resulting in Reduced Plasma Viremia and Decreased HIV Reservoir Size during Acute HIV Infection in a Humanized Mouse Model.

The BCL-2 prosurvival protein is implicated in HIV persistence and is a potential therapeutic target for HIV eradication efforts. We now know that cells harboring HIV are preferentially enriched for high BCL-2 expression, enabling their survival, and that the BCL-2 inhibitor venetoclax promotes the death of actively replicating HIV-infected cells in vitro and ex vivo. Herein, we assess the effect of venetoclax on immune clearance of infected cells and show that BCL-2 inhibition significantly enhances target cell killing induced by Fas ligand, TRAIL (tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand), and perforin/granzyme B and synergistically enhances autologous NK (natural killer) and CD8 cells' killing of target cells. In a humanized mouse model of acute HIV infection, venetoclax monotherapy significantly decreases plasma viremia and normalizes CD4:CD8 ratios, and results in more mice with undetectable provirus levels than control. In this model, treatment was associated with leukopenia, as has been described clinically in patients receiving venetoclax for other indications. These data confirm meaningful anti-HIV effects of venetoclax during HIV infection but suggest that venetoclax use should be combined with ART (antiretroviral therapy) to reduce toxicity. IMPORTANCE This study is the first to examine the applicability of BCL-2 inhibition in the setting of active HIV infection in vivo. Furthermore, this study demonstrates that venetoclax significantly enhances target cell killing induced by Fas ligand, TRAIL, and perforin/granzyme B and synergistically enhances autologous NK and CD8 cells' killing of target cells.

Changing Landscape of Liver Transplantation in the Post-DAA and Contemporary ART Era.

Combination anti-retroviral therapy has drastically improved solid organ transplantation outcomes in persons living with HIV. DAA therapy has led to the successful eradication of HCV. While recent data have suggested improvement in outcomes in HIV/HCV-coinfected liver transplant recipients, temporal trends in patient survival within pre- and post-DAA eras are yet to be elucidated. The UNOS database was utilized to identify deceased donor liver transplant recipients between 1 January 2000 and 30 September 2020 and stratify them by HIV and HCV infection status. A total of 85,730 patients met the inclusion criteria. One-year and five-year patient survival improved (93% and 80%, respectively) for all transplants performed post-2015. For HIV/HCV-coinfected recipients, survival improved significantly from 78% (pre-2015) to 92% (post-2015). Multivariate regression analyses identified advanced recipient age, Black race, diabetes mellitus and decompensated cirrhosis as risk factors associated with higher one-year mortality. Liver transplant outcomes in HIV/HCV-coinfected liver transplant recipients have significantly improved over the last quinquennium in the setting of the highly effective combination of ART and DAA therapy. The presence of HIV, HCV, HIV/HCV-coinfection and active HCV viremia at the time of transplant do not cause higher mortality risk in liver transplant recipients in the current era.

Development of a multiomics model for identification of predictive biomarkers for COVID-19 severity: a retrospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: COVID-19 is a multi-system disorder with high variability in clinical outcomes among patients who are admitted to hospital. Although some cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-6 are believed to be associated with severity, there are no early biomarkers that can reliably predict patients who are more likely to have adverse outcomes. Thus, it is crucial to discover predictive markers of serious complications. METHODS: In this retrospective cohort study, we analysed samples from 455 participants with COVID-19 who had had a positive SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR result between April 14, 2020, and Dec 1, 2020 and who had visited one of three Mayo Clinic sites in the USA (Minnesota, Arizona, or Florida) in the same period. These participants were assigned to three subgroups depending on disease severity as defined by the WHO ordinal scale of clinical improvement (outpatient, severe, or critical). Our control cohort comprised of 182 anonymised age-matched and sex-matched plasma samples that were available from the Mayo Clinic Biorepository and banked before the COVID-19 pandemic. We did a deep profiling of circulatory cytokines and other proteins, lipids, and metabolites from both cohorts. Most patient samples were collected before, or around the time of, hospital admission, representing ideal samples for predictive biomarker discovery. We used proximity extension assays to quantify cytokines and circulatory proteins and tandem mass spectrometry to measure lipids and metabolites. Biomarker discovery was done by applying an AutoGluon-tabular classifier to a multiomics dataset, producing a stacked ensemble of cutting-edge machine learning algorithms. Global proteomics and glycoproteomics on a subset of patient samples with matched pre-COVID-19 plasma samples was also done. FINDINGS: We quantified 1463 cytokines and circulatory proteins, along with 902 lipids and 1018 metabolites. By developing a machine-learning-based prediction model, a set of 102 biomarkers, which predicted severe and clinical COVID-19 outcomes better than the traditional set of cytokines, were discovered. These predictive biomarkers included several novel cytokines and other proteins, lipids, and metabolites. For example, altered amounts of C-type lectin domain family 6 member A (CLEC6A), ether phosphatidylethanolamine (P-18:1/18:1), and 2-hydroxydecanoate, as reported here, have not previously been associated with severity in COVID-19. Patient samples with matched pre-COVID-19 plasma samples showed similar trends in muti-omics signatures along with differences in glycoproteomics profile. INTERPRETATION: A multiomic molecular signature in the plasma of patients with COVID-19 before being admitted to hospital can be exploited to predict a more severe course of disease. Machine learning approaches can be applied to highly complex and multidimensional profiling data to reveal novel signatures of clinical use. The absence of validation in an independent cohort remains a major limitation of the study. FUNDING: Eric and Wendy Schmidt.

Detecting Sources of Immune Activation and Viral Rebound in HIV Infection.

Anti-retroviral therapy (ART) generally suppresses HIV replication to undetectable levels in peripheral blood, but immune activation associated with increased morbidity and mortality is sustained during ART, and infection rebounds when treatment is interrupted. To identify drivers of immune activation and potential sources of viral rebound, we modified RNAscope in situ hybridization to visualize HIV-producing cells as a standard against which to compare the following assays of potential sources of immune activation and virus rebound following treatment interruption: (i) envelope detection by induced transcription-based sequencing (EDITS) assay; (ii) HIV-Flow; (iii) Flow-FISH assays that can scan tissues and cell suspensions to detect rare cells expressing env mRNA, gag mRNA/Gag protein and p24; and (iv) an ultrasensitive immunoassay that detects p24 in cell/tissue lysates at subfemtomolar levels. We show that the sensitivities of these assays are sufficient to detect one rare HIV-producing/env mRNA+/p24+ cell in one million uninfected cells. These high-throughput technologies provide contemporary tools to detect and characterize rare cells producing virus and viral antigens as potential sources of immune activation and viral rebound. IMPORTANCE Anti-retroviral therapy (ART) has greatly improved the quality and length of life for people living with HIV, but immune activation does not normalize during ART, and persistent immune activation has been linked to increased morbidity and mortality. We report a comparison of assays of two potential sources of immune activation during ART: rare cells producing HIV and the virus' major viral protein, p24, benchmarked on a cell model of active and latent infections and a method to visualize HIV-producing cells. We show that assays of HIV envelope mRNA (EDITS assay), gag mRNA, and p24 (Flow-FISH, HIV-Flow. and ultrasensitive p24 immunoassay) detect HIV-producing cells and p24 at sensitivities of one infected cell in a million uninfected cells, thereby providing validated tools to explore sources of immune activation during ART in the lymphoid and other tissue reservoirs.

SARS-CoV-2 and influenza coinfection throughout the COVID-19 pandemic: an assessment of coinfection rates, cohort characteristics, and clinical outcomes.

Case reports of patients infected with COVID-19 and influenza virus ("flurona") have raised questions around the prevalence and severity of coinfection. Using data from HHS Protect Public Data Hub, NCBI Virus, and CDC FluView, we analyzed trends in SARS-CoV-2 and influenza hospitalized coinfection cases and strain prevalences. We also characterized coinfection cases across the Mayo Clinic Enterprise from January 2020 to April 2022. We compared expected and observed coinfection case counts across different waves of the pandemic and assessed symptoms and outcomes of coinfection and COVID-19 monoinfection cases after propensity score matching on clinically relevant baseline characteristics. From both the Mayo Clinic and nationwide datasets, the observed coinfection rate for SARS-CoV-2 and influenza has been higher during the Omicron era (2021 December 14 to 2022 April 2) compared to previous waves, but no higher than expected assuming infection rates are independent. At the Mayo Clinic, only 120 coinfection cases were observed among 197,364 SARS-CoV-2 cases. Coinfected patients were relatively young (mean age: 26.7 years) and had fewer serious comorbidities compared to monoinfected patients. While there were no significant differences in 30-day hospitalization, ICU admission, or mortality rates between coinfected and matched COVID-19 monoinfection cases, coinfection cases reported higher rates of symptoms including congestion, cough, fever/chills, headache, myalgia/arthralgia, pharyngitis, and rhinitis. While most coinfection cases observed at the Mayo Clinic occurred among relatively healthy individuals, further observation is needed to assess outcomes among subpopulations with risk factors for severe COVID-19 such as older age, obesity, and immunocompromised status.

Durability analysis of the highly effective BNT162b2 vaccine against COVID-19.

COVID-19 vaccines are effective, but breakthrough infections have been increasingly reported. We conducted a test-negative case-control study to assess the durability of protection after full vaccination with BNT162b2 against polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-confirmed symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection, in a national medical practice from January 2021 through January 2022. We fit conditional logistic regression (CLR) models stratified on residential county and calendar time of testing to assess the association between time elapsed since vaccination and the odds of symptomatic infection or non-COVID-19 hospitalization (negative control), adjusted for several covariates. There were 5,985 symptomatic individuals with a positive test after full vaccination with BNT162b2 (cases) and 32,728 negative tests contributed by 27,753 symptomatic individuals after full vaccination (controls). The adjusted odds of symptomatic infection were higher 250 days after full vaccination versus at the date of full vaccination (Odds Ratio [OR]: 3.62, 95% CI: 2.52 to 5.20). The odds of infection were still lower 285 days after the first BNT162b2 dose as compared to 4 days after the first dose (OR: 0.50, 95% CI: 0.37 to 0.67), when immune protection approximates the unvaccinated status. Low rates of COVID-19 associated hospitalization or death in this cohort precluded analyses of these severe outcomes. The odds of non-COVID-19 associated hospitalization (negative control) decreased with time since vaccination, suggesting a possible underestimation of waning protection by this approach due to confounding factors. In summary, BNT162b2 strongly protected against symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection for at least 8 months after full vaccination, but the degree of protection waned significantly over this period.