A Newly Identified Peripheral Duplex Anchors and Stabilizes the MALAT1 Triplex.

The accumulation of the 8-kb oncogenic long noncoding MALAT1 RNA in cells is dependent on the presence of a protective triple helix structure at the 3' terminus. While recent studies have examined the functional importance of numerous base triples within the triplex and its immediately adjacent base pairs, the functional importance of peripheral duplex elements has not been thoroughly investigated. To investigate the functional importance of a peripheral linker region that was previously described as unstructured, we employed a variety of assays including thermal melting, protection from exonucleolytic degradation by RNase R, small-angle X-ray scattering, biochemical ligation and binding assays, and computational modeling. Our results demonstrate the presence of a duplex within this linker that enhances the functional stability of the triplex in vitro, despite its location more than 40 Å from the 3' terminus. We present a full-length model of the MALAT1 triple helix-containing RNA having an extended rod-like structure and comprising 33 layers of coaxial stacking interactions. Taken together with recent research on a homologous triplex, our results demonstrate that peripheral elements anchor and stabilize triplexes in vitro. Such peripheral elements may also contribute to the formation and stability of some triple helices in vivo.

Dynamic bulge nucleotides in the KSHV PAN ENE triple helix provide a unique binding platform for small molecule ligands.

Cellular and virus-coded long non-coding (lnc) RNAs support multiple roles related to biological and pathological processes. Several lncRNAs sequester their 3' termini to evade cellular degradation machinery, thereby supporting disease progression. An intramolecular triplex involving the lncRNA 3' terminus, the element for nuclear expression (ENE), stabilizes RNA transcripts and promotes persistent function. Therefore, such ENE triplexes, as presented here in Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) polyadenylated nuclear (PAN) lncRNA, represent targets for therapeutic development. Towards identifying novel ligands targeting the PAN ENE triplex, we screened a library of immobilized small molecules and identified several triplex-binding chemotypes, the tightest of which exhibits micromolar binding affinity. Combined biophysical, biochemical, and computational strategies localized ligand binding to a platform created near a dinucleotide bulge at the base of the triplex. Crystal structures of apo (3.3 Å) and ligand-soaked (2.5 Å) ENE triplexes, which include a stabilizing basal duplex, indicate significant local structural rearrangements within this dinucleotide bulge. MD simulations and a modified nucleoside analog interference technique corroborate the role of the bulge and the base of the triplex in ligand binding. Together with recently discovered small molecules that reduce nuclear MALAT1 lncRNA levels by engaging its ENE triplex, our data supports the potential of targeting RNA triplexes with small molecules.

Racial and ethnic inequities in the early distribution of U.S. COVID-19 testing sites and mortality.

BACKGROUND: In 2020, early U.S. COVID-19 testing sites offered diagnostic capacity to patients and were important sources of epidemiological data about the spread of the novel pandemic disease. However, little research has comprehensively described American testing sites' distribution by race/ethnicity and sought to identify any relation to known disparities in COVID-19 outcomes. METHODS: Locations of U.S. COVID-19 testing sites were gathered from 16 April to 28 May 2020. Geographic testing disparities were evaluated with comparisons of the demographic makeup of zip codes around each testing site versus Monte Carlo simulations, aggregated to statewide and nationwide levels. State testing disparities were compared with statewide disparities in mortality observed one to 3 weeks later using multivariable regression, controlling for confounding disparities and characteristics. RESULTS: Nationwide, COVID-19 testing sites geographically overrepresented White residents on 7 May, underrepresented Hispanic residents on 16 April, 7 May and 28 May and overrepresented Black residents on 28 May compared with random distribution within counties, with new sites added over time exhibiting inconsistent disparities for Black and Hispanic populations. For every 1 percentage point increase in underrepresentation of Hispanic populations in zip codes with testing, mortality among the state's Hispanic population was 1.04 percentage points more over-representative (SE = 0.415, p = .01). CONCLUSIONS: American testing sites were not distributed equitably by race during this analysis, often underrepresenting minority populations who bear a disproportionate burden of COVID-19 cases and deaths. With an easy-to-implement measure of geographic disparity, these results provide empirical support for the consideration of access when distributing preventive resources.

Racial disparities in knowledge, attitudes and practices related to COVID-19 in the USA.

BACKGROUND: Recent reports indicate racial disparities in the rates of infection and mortality from the 2019 novel coronavirus (coronavirus disease 2019 [COVID-19]). The aim of this study was to determine whether disparities exist in the levels of knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAPs) related to COVID-19. METHODS: We analyzed data from 1216 adults in the March 2020 Kaiser Family Foundation 'Coronavirus Poll', to determine levels of KAPs across different groups. Univariate and multivariate regression analysis was used to identify predictors of KAPs. RESULTS: In contrast to White respondents, Non-White respondents were more likely to have low knowledge (58% versus 30%; P < 0.001) and low attitude scores (52% versus 27%; P < 0.001), but high practice scores (81% versus 59%; P < 0.001). By multivariate regression, White race (odds ratio [OR] 3.06; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.70-5.50), higher level of education (OR 1.80; 95% CI: 1.46-2.23) and higher income (OR 2.06; 95% CI: 1.58-2.70) were associated with high knowledge of COVID-19. Race, sex, education, income, health insurance status and political views were all associated with KAPs. CONCLUSIONS: Racial and socioeconomic disparity exists in the levels of KAPs related to COVID-19. More work is needed to identify educational tools that tailor to specific racial and socioeconomic groups.

Strictinin, a novel ROR1-inhibitor, represses triple negative breast cancer survival and migration via modulation of PI3K/AKT/GSK3ß activity.

Triple Negative Breast Cancer (TNBC), the most aggressive subtype of breast cancer, is characterized by the absence of hormone receptors usually targeted by hormone therapies like Tamoxifen. Because therapy success and survival rates for TNBC lag far behind other breast cancer subtypes, there is significant interest in developing novel anti-TNBC agents that can target TNBC specifically, with minimal effects on non-malignant tissue. To this aim, our study describes the anti-TNBC effect of strictinin, an ellagitanin previously isolated from Myrothamnus flabellifolius. Using various in silico and molecular techniques, we characterized the mechanism of action of strictinin in TNBC. Our results suggest strictinin interacts strongly with Receptor Tyrosine Kinase Orphan like 1 (ROR1). ROR1 is an oncofetal receptor highly expressed during development but not in normal adult tissue. It is highly expressed in several human malignancies however, owing to its numerous pro-tumor functions. Via its interaction and inhibition of ROR1, strictinin reduced AKT phosphorylation on ser-473, inhibiting downstream phosphorylation and inhibition of GSK3ß. The reduction in AKT phosphorylation also correlated with decreased cell survival and activation of the caspase-mediated intrinsic apoptotic cascade. Strictinin treatment also repressed cell migration and invasion in a beta-catenin independent manner, presumably via the reactivated GSK3ß's repressing effect on microtubule polymerization and focal adhesion turnover. This could be of potential therapeutic interest considering heightened interest in ROR1 and other receptor tyrosine kinases as targets for development of anti-cancer agents. Further studies are needed to validate these findings in other ROR1-expressing malignancies but also in more systemic models of TNBC. Our findings do however underline the potential of strictinin and other ROR1-targeting agents as therapeutic tools to reduce TNBC proliferation, survival and motility.

A highly ordered, nonprotective MALAT1 ENE structure is adopted prior to triplex formation.

The 3' end of the ∼7 kb lncRNA MALAT1 contains an evolutionarily and structurally conserved element for nuclear expression (ENE) which confers protection from cellular degradation pathways. Formation of an ENE triple helix is required to support transcript accumulation, leading to persistent oncogenic activity of MALAT1 in multiple cancer types. Though the specific mechanism of triplex-mediated protection remains unknown, the MALAT1 ENE triplex has been identified as a promising target for therapeutic intervention. Interestingly, a maturation step of the nascent lncRNA 3' end is required prior to triplex formation. We hypothesize that disruption of the maturation or folding process may be a viable mechanism of inhibition. To assess putative cotranscriptional ENE conformations prior to triplex formation, we perform microsecond MD simulations of a partially folded ENE conformation and the ENE triplex. We identify a highly ordered ENE structure prior to triplex formation. Extensive formation of U•U base pairs within the large U-rich internal loops produces a global rod-like architecture. We present a three-dimensional structure of the isolated ENE motif, the global features of which are consistent with small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) experiments. Our structural model represents a nonprotective conformation of the MALAT1 ENE, providing a molecular description useful for future mechanistic and inhibition studies. We anticipate that targeting stretches of U•U pairs within the ENE motif will prove advantageous for the design of therapeutics targeting this oncogenic lncRNA.

Fluorescence-based investigations of RNA-small molecule interactions.

Interrogating non-coding RNA structures and functions with small molecules is an area of rapidly increasing interest among biochemists and chemical biologists. However, many biochemical approaches to monitoring RNA structures are time-consuming and low-throughput, and thereby are only of limited utility for RNA-small molecule studies. Fluorescence-based techniques are powerful tools for rapid investigation of RNA conformations, dynamics, and interactions with small molecules. Many fluorescence methods are amenable to high-throughput analysis, enabling library screening for small molecule binders. In this review, we summarize numerous fluorescence-based approaches for identifying and characterizing RNA-small molecule interactions. We describe in detail a high-information content dual-reporter FRET assay we developed to characterize small molecule-induced conformational and stability changes. Our assay is uniquely suited as a platform for both small molecule discovery and thorough characterization of RNA-small molecule binding mechanisms. Given the growing recognition of non-coding RNAs as attractive targets for therapeutic intervention, we anticipate our FRET assay and other fluorescence-based techniques will be indispensable for the development of potent and specific small molecule inhibitors targeting RNA.

Selective Small-Molecule Targeting of a Triple Helix Encoded by the Long Noncoding RNA, MALAT1.

Metastasis-associated lung adenocarcinoma transcript 1 ( Malat1/ MALAT1, mouse/human), a highly conserved long noncoding (lnc) RNA, has been linked with several physiological processes, including the alternative splicing, nuclear organization, and epigenetic modulation of gene expression. MALAT1 has also been implicated in metastasis and tumor proliferation in multiple cancer types. The 3' terminal stability element for nuclear expression (ENE) assumes a triple-helical configuration that promotes its nuclear accumulation and persistent function. Utilizing a novel small molecule microarray strategy, we identified multiple Malat1 ENE triplex-binding chemotypes, among which compounds 5 and 16 reduced Malat1 RNA levels and branching morphogenesis in a mammary tumor organoid model. Computational modeling and Förster resonance energy transfer experiments demonstrate distinct binding modes for each chemotype, conferring opposing structural changes to the triplex. Compound 5 modulates Malat1 downstream genes without affecting Neat1, a nuclear lncRNA encoded in the same chromosomal region as Malat1 with a structurally similar ENE triplex. Supporting this observation, the specificity of compound 5 for Malat1 over Neat1 and a virus-coded ENE was demonstrated by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Small molecules specifically targeting the MALAT1 ENE triplex lay the foundation for new classes of anticancer therapeutics and molecular probes for the treatment and investigation of MALAT1-driven cancers.

Finely tuned conformational dynamics regulate the protective function of the lncRNA MALAT1 triple helix.

Nucleic acid triplexes may regulate many important biological processes. Persistent accumulation of the oncogenic 7-kb long noncoding RNA MALAT1 is dependent on an unusually long intramolecular triple helix. This triplex structure is positioned within a conserved ENE (element for nuclear expression) motif at the lncRNA 3' terminus and protects the entire transcript from degradation in a polyA-independent manner. A requisite 3' maturation step leads to triplex formation though the precise mechanism of triplex folding remains unclear. Furthermore, the contributions of several peripheral structural elements to triplex formation and protective function have not been determined. We evaluated the stability, conformational fluctuations, and function of this MALAT1 ENE triple helix (M1TH) protective element using in vitro mutational analyses coupled with biochemical and biophysical characterizations. Using fluorescence and UV melts, FRET, and an exonucleolytic decay assay we define a concerted mechanism for triplex formation and uncover a metastable, dynamic triplex population under near-physiological conditions. Structural elements surrounding the triplex regulate the dynamic M1TH conformational variability, but increased triplex dynamics lead to M1TH degradation. Taken together, we suggest that finely tuned dynamics may be a general mechanism regulating triplex-mediated functions.

Macrocycle peptides delineate locked-open inhibition mechanism for microorganism phosphoglycerate mutases.

Glycolytic interconversion of phosphoglycerate isomers is catalysed in numerous pathogenic microorganisms by a cofactor-independent mutase (iPGM) structurally distinct from the mammalian cofactor-dependent (dPGM) isozyme. The iPGM active site dynamically assembles through substrate-triggered movement of phosphatase and transferase domains creating a solvent inaccessible cavity. Here we identify alternate ligand binding regions using nematode iPGM to select and enrich lariat-like ligands from an mRNA-display macrocyclic peptide library containing >1012 members. Functional analysis of the ligands, named ipglycermides, demonstrates sub-nanomolar inhibition of iPGM with complete selectivity over dPGM. The crystal structure of an iPGM macrocyclic peptide complex illuminated an allosteric, locked-open inhibition mechanism placing the cyclic peptide at the bi-domain interface. This binding mode aligns the pendant lariat cysteine thiolate for coordination with the iPGM transition metal ion cluster. The extended charged, hydrophilic binding surface interaction rationalizes the persistent challenges these enzymes have presented to small-molecule screening efforts highlighting the important roles of macrocyclic peptides in expanding chemical diversity for ligand discovery.

Rapid RNA-ligand interaction analysis through high-information content conformational and stability landscapes.

The structure and biological properties of RNAs are a function of changing cellular conditions, but comprehensive, simultaneous investigation of the effect of multiple interacting environmental variables is not easily achieved. We have developed an efficient, high-throughput method to characterize RNA structure and thermodynamic stability as a function of multiplexed solution conditions using Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET). In a single FRET experiment using conventional quantitative PCR instrumentation, 19,400 conditions of MgCl2, ligand and temperature are analysed to generate detailed empirical conformational and stability landscapes of the cyclic diguanylate (c-di-GMP) riboswitch. The method allows rapid comparison of RNA structure modulation by cognate and non-cognate ligands. Landscape analysis reveals that kanamycin B stabilizes a non-native, idiosyncratic conformation of the riboswitch that inhibits c-di-GMP binding. This demonstrates that allosteric control of folding, rather than direct competition with cognate effectors, is a viable approach for pharmacologically targeting riboswitches and other structured RNA molecules.

Heterotypic Signals from Neural HSF-1 Separate Thermotolerance from Longevity.

Integrating stress responses across tissues is essential for the survival of multicellular organisms. The metazoan nervous system can sense protein-misfolding stress arising in different subcellular compartments and initiate cytoprotective transcriptional responses in the periphery. Several subcellular compartments possess a homotypic signal whereby the respective compartment relies on a single signaling mechanism to convey information within the affected cell to the same stress-responsive pathway in peripheral tissues. In contrast, we find that the heat shock transcription factor, HSF-1, specifies its mode of transcellular protection via two distinct signaling pathways. Upon thermal stress, neural HSF-1 primes peripheral tissues through the thermosensory neural circuit to mount a heat shock response. Independent of this thermosensory circuit, neural HSF-1 activates the FOXO transcription factor, DAF-16, in the periphery and prolongs lifespan. Thus a single transcription factor can coordinate different stress response pathways to specify its mode of protection against changing environmental conditions.

Structures to the people!

A combination of 3D modeling and high-throughput sequencing may offer a faster way to determine the three-dimensional structures of RNA molecules.

HSF-1-mediated cytoskeletal integrity determines thermotolerance and life span.

The conserved heat shock transcription factor-1 (HSF-1) is essential to cellular stress resistance and life-span determination. The canonical function of HSF-1 is to regulate a network of genes encoding molecular chaperones that protect proteins from damage caused by extrinsic environmental stress or intrinsic age-related deterioration. In Caenorhabditis elegans, we engineered a modified HSF-1 strain that increased stress resistance and longevity without enhanced chaperone induction. This health assurance acted through the regulation of the calcium-binding protein PAT-10. Loss of pat-10 caused a collapse of the actin cytoskeleton, stress resistance, and life span. Furthermore, overexpression of pat-10 increased actin filament stability, thermotolerance, and longevity, indicating that in addition to chaperone regulation, HSF-1 has a prominent role in cytoskeletal integrity, ensuring cellular function during stress and aging.

Integrin-linked kinase modulates longevity and thermotolerance in C. elegans through neuronal control of HSF-1.

Integrin-signaling complexes play important roles in cytoskeletal organization and cell adhesion in many species. Components of the integrin-signaling complex have been linked to aging in both Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster, but the mechanism underlying this function is unknown. Here, we investigated the role of integrin-linked kinase (ILK), a key component of the integrin-signaling complex, in lifespan determination. We report that genetic reduction of ILK in both C. elegans and Drosophila increased resistance to heat stress, and led to lifespan extension in C. elegans without majorly affecting cytoskeletal integrity. In C. elegans, longevity and thermotolerance induced by ILK depletion was mediated by heat-shock factor-1 (HSF-1), a major transcriptional regulator of the heat-shock response (HSR). Reduction in ILK levels increased hsf-1 transcription and activation, and led to enhanced expression of a subset of genes with roles in the HSR. Moreover, induction of HSR-related genes, longevity and thermotolerance caused by ILK reduction required the thermosensory neurons AFD and interneurons AIY, which are known to play a critical role in the canonical HSR. Notably, ILK was expressed in neighboring neurons, but not in AFD or AIY, implying that ILK reduction initiates cell nonautonomous signaling through thermosensory neurons to elicit a noncanonical HSR. Our results thus identify HSF-1 as a novel effector of the organismal response to reduced ILK levels and show that ILK inhibition regulates HSF-1 in a cell nonautonomous fashion to enhance stress resistance and lifespan in C. elegans.

Analysis of riboswitch structure and ligand binding using small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS).

Small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) is a powerful tool for examining the global conformation of riboswitches in solution, and how this is modulated by binding of divalent cations and small molecule ligands. SAXS experiments, which typically require only minutes per sample, directly yield two quantities describing the size and shape of the RNA: the radius of gyration (Rg) and the maximum linear dimension (Dmax). Examination of these quantities can reveal if a riboswitch undergoes cation-induced compaction. Comparison of the Rg and Dmax values between samples containing different concentrations of ligand reveals the overall structural response of the riboswitch to ligand. The Kratky plot (a graphical representation that emphasizes the higher-resolution SAXS data) and the P(r) plot or pair-probability distribution (an indirect Fourier transform, or power spectrum of the data) can provide additional evidence of riboswitch conformational changes. Simulation methods have been developed for generating three-dimensional reconstructions consistent with the one-dimensional SAXS data. These low-resolution molecular envelopes can aid in deciphering the relative helical arrangement within the RNA.

Modulation of quaternary structure and enhancement of ligand binding by the K-turn of tandem glycine riboswitches.

Most known glycine riboswitches have two homologous aptamer domains arranged in tandem and separated by a short linker. The two aptamers associate through reciprocal "quaternary" interactions that have been proposed to result in cooperative glycine binding. Recently, the interaptamer linker was found to form helix P0 with a previously unrecognized segment 5' to the first aptamer domain. P0 was shown to increase glycine affinity, abolish cooperativity, and conform to the K-turn motif consensus. We examine the global thermodynamic and structural role of P0 using isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), respectively. To evaluate the generality of P0 function, we prepared glycine riboswitch constructs lacking and including P0 from Bacillus subtilis, Fusobacterium nucleatum, and Vibrio cholerae. We find that P0 indeed folds into a K-turn, supports partial pre-folding of all three glycine-free RNAs, and is required for ITC observation of glycine binding under physiologic Mg(2+) concentrations. Except for the unusually small riboswitch from F. nucleatum, the K-turn is needed for maximally compacting the glycine-bound states of the RNAs. Formation of a ribonucleoprotein complex between the B. subtilis or the F. nucleatum RNA constructs and the bacterial K-turn binding protein YbxF promotes additional folding of the free riboswitch, and enhances glycine binding. Consistent with the previously reported loss of cooperativity, P0-containing B. subtilis and V. cholerae tandem aptamers bound no more than one glycine molecule per riboswitch. Our results indicate that the P0 K-turn helps organize the quaternary structure of tandem glycine riboswitches, thereby facilitating ligand binding under physiologic conditions.

YbxF and YlxQ are bacterial homologs of L7Ae and bind K-turns but not K-loops.

The archaeal protein L7Ae and eukaryotic homologs such as L30e and 15.5kD comprise the best characterized family of K-turn-binding proteins. K-turns are an RNA motif comprised of a bulge flanked by canonical and noncanonical helices. They are widespread in cellular RNAs, including bacterial gene-regulatory RNAs such as the c-di-GMP-II, lysine, and SAM-I riboswitches, and the T-box. The existence in bacteria of K-turn-binding proteins of the L7Ae family has not been proven, although two hypothetical proteins, YbxF and YlxQ, have been proposed to be L7Ae homologs based on sequence conservation. Using purified, recombinant proteins, we show that Bacillus subtilis YbxF and YlxQ bind K-turns (K(d) ~270 nM and ~2300 nM, respectively). Crystallographic structure determination demonstrates that both YbxF and YlxQ adopt the same overall fold as L7Ae. Unlike the latter, neither bacterial protein recognizes K-loops, a structural motif that lacks the canonical helix of the K-turn. This property is shared between the bacterial and eukaryal family members. Comparison of our structure of YbxF in complex with the K-turn of the SAM-I riboswitch and previously determined structures of archaeal and eukaryal homologs bound to RNA indicates that L7Ae approaches the K-turn at a unique angle, which results in a considerably larger RNA-protein interface dominated by interactions with the noncanonical helix of the K-turn. Thus, the inability of the bacterial and eukaryal L7Ae homologs to bind K-loops probably results from their reliance on interactions with the canonical helix. The biological functions of YbxF and YlxQ remain to be determined.

Discrete structure of an RNA folding intermediate revealed by cryo-electron microscopy.

RNA folding occurs via a series of transitions between metastable intermediate states. It is unknown whether folding intermediates are discrete structures folding along defined pathways or heterogeneous ensembles folding along broad landscapes. We use cryo-electron microscopy and single-particle image reconstruction to determine the structure of the major folding intermediate of the specificity domain of a ribonuclease P ribozyme. Our results support the existence of a discrete conformation for this folding intermediate.

Riboswitch function: flipping the switch or tuning the dimmer?

Riboswitches are structured mRNA elements involved in gene regulation that respond to the intracellular concentration of specific small molecules. Binding of their cognate ligand is thought to elicit a global conformational change of the riboswitch, in addition to modulating the fine structure of the binding site. X-ray crystallography has produced detailed descriptions of the three-dimensional structures of the ligand-bound conformations of several riboswitches. We have employed small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) to generate low-resolution reconstructions of the ligand-free states of the ligand-binding domains of riboswitches that respond to thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), and cyclic diguanylate (c-di-GMP), a bacterial second messenger. Comparison of the SAXS reconstructions with the crystal structures of these two riboswitches demonstrates that the RNAs undergo dramatic ligand-induced global conformational changes. However, this is not an universal feature of riboswitches. SAXS analysis of the solution behavior of several other riboswitch ligand-binding domains demonstrates a broad spectrum of conformational switching behaviors, ranging from the unambiguous switching of the TPP and c-di-GMP riboswitches to complete lack of switching for the flavin mononucleotide (FMN) riboswitch. Moreover, the switching behavior varies between examples of the same riboswitch from different organisms. The range of observed behaviors suggests that in response to the evolutionary need for precise genetic regulation, riboswitches may be tuned to function more as dimmers or rheostats than binary on/off switches.