Vicinal nitrohydroxyeicosatrienoic acids: vasodilator lipids formed by reaction of nitrogen dioxide with arachidonic acid.

Nitric oxide (NO)-derived species could potentially react with arachidonic acid to generate novel vasoactive metabolites. We studied the reaction of arachidonic acid with nitrogen dioxide (NO2), a free radical that originates from NO oxidation. The reaction mixture contained lipid products that relaxed endothelium-removed bovine coronary arteries. Relaxation to the lipid mixture was inhibited approximately 20% by indomethacin and approximately 70% by a soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) inhibitor (ODQ). Thus, novel lipid products, which activate sGC presumably through a mechanism involving NO, appeared to have contributed to the observed vasorelaxation. Lipids that eluted at 9 to 12 min during high-performance liquid chromatography fractionation accounted for about one-half of the vasodilator activity in the reaction mixture, which was inhibited by ODQ. Lipid products in fractions 9 to 12 were identified by electrospray tandem mass spectrometry to be eight isomers having molecular weight of 367 and a fragmentation pattern indicative of arachidonic acid derivatives containing nitro and hydroxy groups and consistent with the structures of vicinal nitrohydroxyeicosatrienoic acids. These lipids spontaneously released NO (183 +/- 12 nmol NO/15 min/micromol) as detected by head space/chemiluminescence analysis. Mild alkaline hydrolysis of total lipids extracted from bovine cardiac muscle followed by isotopic dilution gas chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis detected basal levels of nitrohydroxyeicosatrienoic acids (6.8 +/- 2.6 ng/g tissue; n = 4). Thus, the oxidation product of NO, NO2, reacts with arachidonic acid to generate biologically active vicinal nitrohydroxyeicosatrienoic acids, which may be important endogenous mediators of vascular relaxation and sGC activation.

Stereospecific synthesis of trans-arachidonic acids.

An effective synthesis is described for the preparation of all four mono trans isomers of arachidonic acid via deoxidation of epoxide precursors with lithium diphenylphosphide and quaternization with methyl iodide.

Carbon monoxide produced by isolated arterioles attenuates pressure-induced vasoconstriction.

Studies were conducted on isolated rat gracilis muscle arterioles to examine the role of vascular heme oxygenase (HO)-derived carbon monoxide (CO) on myogenic constrictor responses to stepwise increments in intraluminal pressure. The arterioles express HO-2 but not HO-1 and manufacture CO. Both HO-2 protein expression and CO production are reduced in arterioles maintained for 18 h before experimentation in media containing HO-2 antisense oligodeoxynucleotides (AS-ODN). Pressurization of arterioles mounted on a myograph over the pressure range of 40--100 mmHg elicits reduction of internal diameter. At pressures >40 mmHg, the internal diameter of vessels treated with either HO-2 AS-ODN, the HO inhibitor chromium mesoporphyrin (CrMP), or the K(+) channel blocker tetraethylammonium (TEA) are smaller than the corresponding control values. The inclusion of exogenous CO, but not of biliverdin, in the superfusion buffer attenuates pressure-induced vasoconstriction in CrMP-treated vessels. However, exogenous CO does not attenuate pressure-induced vasoconstriction in vessels treated with both CrMP and TEA. Collectively, these data suggest that CO of vascular origin attenuates pressure-induced arteriolar constriction via a mechanism involving a TEA-sensitive K(+) channel.

Carbon monoxide of vascular origin attenuates the sensitivity of renal arterial vessels to vasoconstrictors.

Rat renal interlobar arteries express heme oxygenase 2 (HO-2) and manufacture carbon monoxide (CO), which is released into the headspace gas. CO release falls to 30% and 54% of control, respectively, after inhibition of HO activity with chromium mesoporphyrin (CrMP) or of HO-2 expression with antisense oligodeoxynucleotides (HO-2 AS-ODN). Patch-clamp studies revealed that CrMP decreases the open probability of a tetraethylammonium-sensitive (TEA-sensitive) 105 pS K channel in interlobar artery smooth muscle cells, and that this effect of CrMP is reversed by CO. Assessment of phenylephrine-induced tension development revealed reduction of the EC(50) in vessels treated with HO-2 AS-ODN, CrMP, or TEA. Exogenous CO greatly minimized the sensitizing effect on agonist-induced contractions of agents that decrease vascular CO production, but not the sensitizing effect of K channel blockade with TEA. Collectively, these data suggest that vascular CO serves as an inhibitory modulator of vascular reactivity to vasoconstrictors via a mechanism that involves a TEA-sensitive K channel.

Role of 20-HETE in mediating the effect of dietary K intake on the apical K channels in the mTAL.

We have used the patch-clamp technique to study the effect of dietary K intake on the apical K channels in the medullary thick ascending limb (mTAL) of rat kidneys. The channel activity, defined by the number of channels in a patch and the open probability (NPo), of the 30- and 70-pS K channels, was 0.18 and 0.11, respectively, in the mTAL from rats on a K-deficient diet. In contrast, NPo of the 30- and 70-pS K channels increased to 0.60 and 0.80, respectively, in the tubules from animals on a high-K diet. The concentration of 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (20-HETE) measured with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was 0.8 pg/microg protein in the mTAL from rats on a high-K diet and increased significantly to 4.6 pg/microg protein in the tubules from rats on a K-deficient diet. Addition of N-methylsulfonyl-12,12-dibromododec-11-enamide (DDMS) or 17-octadecynoic acid (17-ODYA), agents that inhibit the formation of 20-HETE, had no significant effect on the activity of the 30-pS K channels. However, DDMS/17-ODYA significantly increased the activity of the apical 70-pS K channel from 0.11 to 0.91 in the mTAL from rats on a K-deficient diet. In contrast, inhibition of the cytochrome P-450 metabolism of arachidonic acid increased NPo from 0.64 to 0.81 in the tubules from animals on a high-K diet. Furthermore, the sensitivity of the 70-pS K channel to 20-HETE was the same between rats on a high-K diet and on a K-deficient diet. Finally, the pretreatment of the tubules with DDMS increased NPo of the 70-pS K channels in the mTAL from rats on a K-deficient diet to 0.76. We conclude that an increase in 20-HETE production is involved in reducing the activity of the apical 70-pS K channels in the mTAL from rats on a K-deficient diet.

16(R)-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid, a novel cytochrome P450 product of arachidonic acid, suppresses activation of human polymorphonuclear leukocyte and reduces intracranial pressure in a rabbit model of thromboembolic stroke.

OBJECTIVE: Activated polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) have been suggested to contribute to the development of increased intracranial pressure (ICP). We recently demonstrated that human PMNs produce a novel cytochrome P450-derived arachidonic acid metabolite, 1 6(R)-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid [16(R)-HETE], that modulates their function. It was thus of interest to examine this novel mediator in an acute stroke model. METHODS: 16-HETE was assessed initially in a variety of human PMN and platelet in vitro assays and subsequently in an established rabbit model of thromboembolic stroke. A total of 50 rabbits completed a randomized, blinded, four-arm study, receiving 16(R)-HETE, tissue plasminogen activator, both, or neither. Experiments were completed 7 hours after autologous clot embolization. The primary end point for efficacy was the suppression of increased ICP. RESULTS: In in vitro assays, 16(R)-HETE selectively inhibited human PMN adhesion and aggregation and leukotriene B4 synthesis. In the thromboembolic stroke model, animals that received 16(R)-HETE demonstrated significant suppression of increased ICP (7.7 +/- 1.2 to 13.1 +/- 2.7 mm Hg, baseline versus final 7-h time point, mean +/- standard error), compared with either the vehicle-treated group (7.7 +/- 0.9 to 15.8 +/- 2.6 mm Hg) or the tissue plasminogen activator-treated group (7.6 +/- 0.6 to 13.7 +/- 2.1 mm Hg). The group that received the combination of 16(R)-HETE plus tissue plasminogen activator demonstrated no significant change in ICP for the duration of the protocol (8.6 +/- 0.6 to 11.1 +/- 1.2 mm Hg). CONCLUSION: 16(R)-HETE suppresses the development of increased ICP in a rabbit model of thromboembolic stroke and may serve as a novel therapeutic strategy in ischemic and inflammatory pathophysiological states.

16(R)-hydroxy-5,8,11,14-eicosatetraenoic acid, a new arachidonate metabolite in human polymorphonuclear leukocytes.

Intact human polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNL) incubated with substimulatory amounts of arachidonic acid in the absence of a calcium ionophore formed four metabolites that were isolated by reverse-phase HPLC and characterized structurally by GC/MS. A major metabolite eluting as the most abundant peak of radioactivity lacked UV chromophores above 215 nm, and its formation was sensitive to 2-diethylaminoethyl-2,2-diphenylvalerate hydrochloride (SKF525A) but not 3-amino-1-[m(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-2-pyrazoline (BW755C), suggesting that it was likely to be a product of cytochrome P450. The GC/MS analysis revealed the presence of two components: 20-hydroxy-5,8,11,14-eicosatetraenoic acid (20-HETE) and 16-hydroxy-5,8,11,14-eicosatetraenoic acid (16-HETE) in an approximate ratio of 4:1. The minor metabolites were identified as 15-HETE and 5-HETE. Although 20-HETE has been observed previously as a product of arachidonic acid metabolism in PMNL, the occurrence of 16-HETE was a novel finding. The stereochemistry of the hydroxyl group in PMNL-derived 16-HETE was established by analysis of 1-pentafluorobenzyl-16-naphthoyl derivatives on a chiral-phase chromatographic column and comparison with authentic synthetic stereoisomers. The PMNL-derived radioactive metabolite co-eluted with the synthetic 16(R)-HETE stereoisomer. Analysis of the total lipid extracts from intact PMNL followed by mild alkaline hydrolysis resulted in detectable amounts of 16-HETE (108+/-26 pg/10(8) cells) and 20-HETE (341+/-69 pg/10(8) cells), which suggested that these HETEs were formed from endogenous arachidonic acid and esterified within PMNL lipids. Thus, in contrast to calcium ionophore-stimulated neutrophils that generate large amounts of 5-lipoxygenase products, the intact PMNL generate 20-HETE and 16(R)-HETE via a cytochrome P450 omega- and omega-4 oxygenase(s).

Diffusion of peroxynitrite into the human platelet inhibits cyclooxygenase via nitration of tyrosine residues.

Peroxynitrite (ONOO(-)), a reactive oxidant produced by the reaction between nitric oxide and superoxide, was found to diffuse into the platelet cytosol and inhibit arachidonic acid-induced platelet aggregations with IC(50) value of 5.8 +/- 1.2 microM. A fluorescence assay established that ONOO(-) diffused into the platelet cytosol in a manner that was inhibited (50-70%) by 4, 4'-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid, an inhibitor of HCO(3)(-)/Cl(-) anion exchanger. Treatment of platelets with (-)-epigallocatechin gallate (2 microM), a tea polyphenol and inhibitor of tyrosine nitration, abolished the inhibitory effect of ONOO(-) on arachidonate-induced aggregations by 88%. ONOO(-) (50-300 microM), added to platelets 1 min before arachidonic acid, inhibited (20-100%) formation of platelet cyclooxygenase (COX) products thromboxane A(2) and 12-hydroxyheptadecatrienoic acid. Interestingly, simultaneous addition of ONOO(-) and arachidonic acid stimulated eicosanoid production by 20 to 60%. The inhibition of thromboxane A(2) generation correlated with the 5- to 10-fold increase in the 3-nitrotyrosine levels of the platelet COX. Experiments with purified COX-1 and COX-2 also showed 9-fold increase of 3-nitrotyrosine levels, which correlated with decreased (93-98%) production of prostaglandin H(2) when ONOO(-) (50 microM) was added 1 min before arachidonic acid. However, the addition of ONOO(-) (50-100 microM) simultaneously with arachidonic acid increased prostaglandin H(2) formation by 30 to 60%. Thus, the inhibitory effect of ONOO(-) involved nitration of COX tyrosine residues, whereas the stimulatory effect was likely to be a result of ONOO(-) functioning as a peroxide activator of eicosanoid signaling. Increasing doses of ONOO(-) not only inhibited platelet COX but also induced formation of unique eicosanoids: iso-prostaglandin F(2alpha), epoxyhydroxyeicosatrienoic acid, and trans-arachidonic acids, suggesting that OH and NO(2) radicals were generated from ONOO(-) in platelets. Formation of ONOO(-) from NO and superoxide may function as a platelet hormone-like COX regulatory mechanism in inflammatory processes in which large amounts of these molecules are produced.

Trans-arachidonic acids: new mediators of inflammation.

Inflammation and many other pathological processes lead to increased production of free radicals that target critical macromolecules such as proteins, DNA and lipids. Structural modifications of these molecules, induced by free radicals, typically result in alterations of vital biochemical processes. Hydroxyl radical-initiated lipid peroxidation is known to generate a variety of toxic oxidized lipids, many of which originate from polyunsaturated fatty acids esterified to cellular membrane phospholipids. Recent interests have focused on a group of lipids known as isoeicosanoids that are formed from peroxidation of arachidonic acid, and share structural similarity to enzymatically-derived prostaglandins and leukotrienes. However, little is known about lipid peroxidation processes initiated by nitrogen free radicals. NO2 is a toxic free radical and an abundant urban air pollutant, which is also generated in vivo from oxidations of nitric or nitrite and decomposition of peroxynitrite. The NO2-induced lipid peroxidation mechanisms involving arachidonic acid have not been characterized. Described here is the isomerization of arachidonic acid, a new process induced by NO2, which leads to a mixture of trans-arachidonic acids. We observed that the levels of trans-arachidonic acids in rat plasma increased following infusion of bacterial endotoxin; therefore, the isomerization of arachidonic acid is likely to occur in vivo by a mechanism involving NO2.

Nitrogen dioxide induces cis-trans-isomerization of arachidonic acid within cellular phospholipids. Detection of trans-arachidonic acids in vivo.

Oxygen free radicals oxidize arachidonic acid to a complex mixture of metabolites termed isoeicosanoids that share structural similarity to enzymatically derived eicosanoids. However, little is known about oxidations of arachidonic acid mediated by reactive radical nitrogen oxides. We have studied the reaction of arachidonic acid with NO2, a free radical generated by nitric oxide and nitrite oxidations. A major group of products appeared to be a mixture of arachidonic acid isomers having one trans-bond and three cis-double bonds. We have termed these new products trans-arachidonic acids. These isomers were chromatographically distinct from arachidonic acid and produced mass spectra that were nearly identical with mass spectra of arachidonic acid. The lack of ultraviolet absorbance above 205 nm and the similarity of mass spectra of dimethyloxazoline derivatives suggested that the trans-bond was not conjugated with any of the cis-bonds, and the C=C bonds were located at carbons 5, 8, 11, and 14. Further identification was based on comparison of chromatographic properties with synthetic standards and revealed that NO2 generated 14-trans-eicosatetraenoic acid and a mixture containing 11-trans-, 8-trans-, and 5-trans-eicosatetraenoic acids. Exposure of human platelets to submicromolar levels of NO2 resulted in a dose-dependent formation of 14-trans-eicosatetraenoic acid and other isomers within platelet glycerophospholipids. Using a sensitive isotopic dilution assay we detected trans-arachidonic acids in human plasma (50.3 +/- 10 ng/ml) and urine (122 +/- 50 pg/ml). We proposed a mechanism of arachidonic acid isomerization that involves a reversible attachment of NO2 to a double bond with formation of a nitroarachidonyl radical. Thus, free radical processes mediated by NO2 lead to generation of trans-arachidonic acid isomers, including biologically active 14-trans-eicosatetraenoic acid, within membrane phospholipids from which they can be released and excreted into urine.

S-Nitroglutathione, a product of the reaction between peroxynitrite and glutathione that generates nitric oxide.

Peroxynitrite (ONOO-) has been shown in studies on vascular relaxation and guanylate cyclase activation to react with glutathione (GSH), generating an intermediate product that promotes a time-dependent production of nitric oxide (NO). In this study, reactions of ONOO- with GSH produced a new substance, which was characterized by liquid chromatography, ultraviolet spectroscopy, and electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. The mass spectrometric data provided evidence that the product of this reaction was S-nitroglutathione (GSNO2) and that S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO) was not a detectable product of this reaction. Further evidence was obtained by comparison of the spectral and chromatographic properties with synthetic standards prepared by reaction of GSH with nitrosonium or nitronium borofluorates. Both the synthetic and ONOO-/GSH-derived GSNO2 generated a protonated ion, GSNO2H+, at m/z 353, which was unusually resistant to decomposition under collision activation, and no fragmentation was observed at collision energy of 25 eV. In contrast, an ion at m/z 337 (GSNOH+), generated from the synthetic GSNO, readily fragmented with the abundant loss of NO at 9 eV. Reactions of ONOO- with GSH resulted in the generation of NO, which was detected by the head space/NO-chemiluminescence analyzer method. The generation of NO was inhibited by the presence of glucose and/or CO2 in the buffers employed. Synthetic GSNO2 spontaneously generated NO in a manner that was not significantly altered by glucose or CO2. Thus, ONOO- reacts with GSH to form GSNO2, and GSNO2 decomposes in a manner that generates NO.

Detection of 3-nitrotyrosine in human platelets exposed to peroxynitrite by a new gas chromatography/mass spectrometry assay.

A new sensitive and specific assay was developed and applied for the quantitative determination of 3-nitrotyrosine in proteins of human platelets. 3-Nitrotyrosine was quantitatively converted into a new pentafluorobenzyl derivative in a single step and detected as an abundant carboxylate anion at m/z 595 using negative ion chemical ionization gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. The internal standard, [13C6]-3-nitrotyrosine, was prepared via a new and efficient method using nitronium borofluorate dissolved in hydrochloric acid. The assay showed excellent linearity and sensitivity. Intact human platelets contained 1.4+/-0.6 ng of 3-nitrotyrosine per milligram of protein. Peroxynitrite increased 3-nitrotyrosine levels 4- to 535-fold at the concentration range of 10 to 300 microM. Decomposed peroxynitrite was without the effect. Nitrogen dioxide (43 microM) was also a potent tyrosine nitrating molecule, increasing the levels of 3-nitrotyrosine 153-fold. HOCl (50 microM) in the presence of nitrite (50 microM) increased the 3-nitrotyrosine levels 3-fold. Exposure of platelets to nitric oxide, nitrite, thrombin, adenosine diphosphate, platelet activating factor, and arachidonic acid had no effect on platelet 3-nitrotyrosine levels.

Phospholipase A2 is involved in mediating the effect of extracellular Ca2+ on apical K+ channels in rat TAL.

Raising extracellular Ca2+ (Ca2+o) stimulating the Ca(2+)-sensing receptor (CaR) decreased the activity of the apical 70-pS K+ channel via a cytochrome P-450-dependent mechanism in the thick ascending limb (TAL) of the rat kidney [W. H. Wang, M. Lu, and S. C. Hebert. Am. J. Physiol. 270 (Cell Physiol. 39): C103-C111, 1996]. We have now used the patch-clamp technique and fluorescent dyes to investigate the signaling mechanism by which this effect is produced. Addition of 500 microM gadolinium (Gd3+), an agent which has been shown to activate the CaR (E. M. Brown, G. Gamba, D. Riccardi, M. Lombardi, R. Butters, O. Kifor, A. Sun, M. A. Hediger, J. Lytton, and S. C. Hebert. Nature 366: 575-580, 1993), mimics the inhibitory effect of raising Ca2+o from 1.1 to 5 mM on channel activity. Effects of the high Ca2+o and Gd3+ were abolished by blockade of phospholipase A2 (PLA2) but not by inhibition of phospholipase C (PLC). Raising Ca2+o also increased 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid production significantly. To investigate the effect of stimulation of the CaR on intracellular Ca2+ (Ca2+i), we used the acetoxymethyl ester of fura 2 to monitor the Ca2+i. Raising Ca2+o from 1.1 to 5 mM increased the Ca2+i significantly from 50 to 150 nM. However, addition of thapsigargin failed to abolish the effect of 5 mM Ca2+o on Ca2+i. Also, application of Gd3+ only slightly increased the Ca2+i, suggesting that elevation of the Ca2+i by high Ca2+o was the result of an influx of Ca2+ rather than enhanced Ca2+ release from Ca2+ stores. That the increase in Ca2+ influx is not mainly responsible for the effect of stimulating the CaR on channel activity is further supported by experiments in which 500 microM Gd3+ inhibited the K+ channel in cell-attached patches in a Ca(2+)-free bath. Furthermore, addition of 500 microM Gd3+ or 5 mM Ca2+o decreased intracellular Na+ measured with fluorescent sodium indicator, suggesting inhibition of Na+ transport. We conclude that PLA2 is involved in the stimulation of the CaR-induced inhibition of apical K+ channels in the TAL.

Eicosanoid excretion in hepatic cirrhosis. Predominance of 20-HETE.

The cytochrome P450 system transforms AA to hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (HETE) metabolites that are vasoactive and affect transport in several nephron segments. A principal product of this system, 20-HETE, participates in key mechanisms that regulate the renal circulation and extracellular fluid volume. We hypothesized that excess production of 20-HETE, which constricts the renal vasculature, contributes to the renal functional disturbances in patients with hepatic cirrhosis, particularly the depression of renal hemodynamics. The development of a precise and sensitive gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric method makes it possible to measure 20-HETE and the subterminal HETEs (16-,17-,18-, and 19-HETEs) in biological fluids. As 20-HETE was excreted as the glucuronide conjugate, measurement of 20-HETE required treatment of urine with glucuronidase. We measured HETEs in the urine of patients with cirrhosis, and compared these values to those of normal subjects. Urinary excretion rate of 20-HETE was highest in patients with ascites; 12.5+/-3.2 ng/min vs. 5.0+/-1.5 and 1.6+/-0.2 ng/min in cirrhotic patients without ascites and in normal subjects, respectively. Excretion of 16-, 17-, and 18-HETEs was not increased. In patients with cirrhosis, the excretory rate of 20-HETE was several-fold higher than those of prostaglandins and thromboxane, whereas in normal subjects 20-HETE and prostaglandins were excreted at similar rates. Of the eicosanoids, only increased excretion of 20-HETE in subjects with cirrhosis was correlated (r = -0.61; P < 0.01) with reduction of renal plasma flow (RPF).

Renal oxygenases: differential contribution to vasoconstriction induced by ET-1 and ANG II.

In the rat isolated perfused kidney, 5,8,11,14-eicosatetraynoic acid, an inhibitor of all pathways of arachidonic acid (AA) metabolism, diminished endothelin-1 (ET-1)- and angiotensin II (ANG II)-induced renal vasoconstriction by approximately 60-70%. We then examined the individual contribution of each oxygenase, cyclooxygenase (COX), lipoxygenase (LOX), and cytochrome P-450 (CYP) to the vasoconstrictor effects of ET-1 and ANG II. Inhibition of COX with indomethacin reduced by 30-40% the vasoconstrictor responses to ET-1 and ANG II. Inhibition of 12-LOX with baicalein and 5- and 12-LOX with 5,8,11-eicosatriynoic acid attenuated ANG II-induced renal vasoconstriction by approximately 40-60% but did not affect responses to ET-1. In contrast, 12,12-dibromododec-11-enoic acid (DBDD), an inhibitor of the CYP omega/omega 1-hydroxylase pathway, diminished ET-1-induced renal vasoconstriction by 30-40%, an effect reproduced by depletion of CYP enzymes with CoCl2. Neither DBDD nor CoCl2 affected renal vasoconstriction elicited by ANG II. ET-1 increased efflux of 19- and 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid, an effect reduced by DBDD. Thus products of the COX and CYP pathways contribute to the renal vasoconstrictor response to ET-1, whereas COX- and LOX-derived eicosanoids contribute to the response to ANG II, accounting for > or = 80% of the vasoactivity of the peptides.

Cytochrome P450-derived renal HETEs: storage and release.

We have established an assay based on gas chromatography-mass spectrometry to profile and quantitate endogenous cytochrome P450 monooxygenase (P450)-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids (HETEs) exiting the isolated perfused rabbit kidney in response to hormonal stimulation. In response to angiotensin II (Ang II) P450-derived HETEs (16-, 17-, 18-, 19- and 20-) are released from the isolated Kreb's perfused rabbit kidney. Ang II produced a several-fold increase in the levels of P450-HETEs above basal levels in both urinary (such as for 20-HETE from 0.93 +/- 0.7 to 2.31 +/- 0.9 ng/min) and venous (from 0.1 +/- 0.05 to 0.3 +/- 0.05 ng/min) effluents. However, inhibition of P450, which reduced basal release, did not prevent Ang II-induced release of P450-AA products from the rabbit kidney; for example, urinary 20-HETE in the presence of 17-ODYA (1 microM) was undetectable and increased to 0.93 +/- 0.4 ng/min with Ang II and venous 20-HETE increased from 0.06 +/- 0.03 to 0.24 +/- 0.07 ng/min. Similar results were obtained with clotrimazole (1 microM). As 16-, 18-, 19- and 20-HETEs are vasodilators in the rabbit kidney and 16- and 17-HETEs inhibit proximal tubular ATPase activity, we investigated their possible sites of esterification. Cortical and medullary lipids were extracted, separated by HPLC and P450-HETEs quantitated following alkaline hydrolysis. The P450-HETEs were incorporated into both neutral lipids (NL) and phospholipids [phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), phosphatidylinositol (PI), phosphatidylserine (PS) and phosphatidylcholine (PC)]. However, the assignment of a HETE to a specific phospholipid pool must be regarded as tentative as the appropriate standards containing P450-HETEs in the Sn-2 position (such as 20-HETE-PF., 20-HETE-PC, etc.) were not available. Esterified HETEs were found in larger quantities in the cortex as compared to the medulla (34.40 +/- 1.12 versus 22.76 +/- 0.53 ng/g). The PI fraction in the cortex yielded the largest quantity of HETEs and the PC fraction the lowest. In the medulla, the largest quantities of esterified HETEs were found in neutral lipids and only slightly lesser amounts in PE and PI. Esterified 18-HETE was localized only to the NI fraction. This fraction also contained the other HETEs, 19- and 20-HETE being the most abundant. Notably only 16- and 17-HETE were present in PF, whereas, 19- and 20-HETE were also present in PI, PS and PC. Thus, P450-HETEs, like EETs are stored in the kidney and are, presumably, subject to release by peptide activation of acylhydrolases.

Cloning, sequencing, and cDNA-directed expression of the rat renal CYP4A2: arachidonic acid omega-hydroxylation and 11,12-epoxidation by CYP4A2 protein.

20-Hydroxy-5,8,11,14-eicosatetraenoic acid (20-HETE), the omega-hydroxylation product of arachidonic acid, is the major metabolite produced in the kidney. It has potent biological effects on renal tubular and vascular functions and on the long-term control of arterial pressure. The synthesis of 20-HETE is catalyzed by enzymes of the CYP4A family, among which CYP4A2 is the most abundant isozyme expressed in the kidneys of rats. We have cloned and sequenced the CYP4A2 cDNA from the kidney of Lewis-Wistar rats and directed its expression using baculovirus and Sf9 insect cells. A high level of expression of CYP4A2 was evident by Northern, Western, and spectral analyses revealing a P450 content of 0.3 nmol/mg microsomal protein. To study CYP4A2-catalyzed arachidonic acid omega-hydroxylation, Sf9 cells were coinfected with CYP4A2 and NADPH cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (OR) recombinant viruses. CYP4A2/OR membranes metabolized lauric acid at a high rate (7 and 5.5 nmol/min/nmol P450 in the presence and absence of b5, respectively). However, arachidonic acid omega-hydroxylase activity was barely detectable. When purified OR was added to the membranes expressing CYP4A2 protein, a concentration-dependent production of 20-HETE was observed. Maximal synthesis of 20-HETE of 0.89 nmol/min/nmol P450 was achieved at OR:CYP4A2 ratio of 14:1. The omega-hydroxylation of arachidonic acid was dependent on the presence of b5. Furthermore, increasing OR concentrations yielded additional arachidonic acid metabolite identified by GC/MS as 11,12-EET. Microsomes prepared from isolated renal microvessels selectively expressed CYP4A2 protein and readily metabolized arachidonic acid to two major metabolites, 20-HETE and 11,12-DHET, the hydrolytic metabolite of 11, 12-EET. It is suggested that CYP4A2 functions as the renal microvessel arachidonate omega-hydroxylase and that it can also catalyze the 11,12-epoxidation of arachidonic acid.

Effect of angiotensin II on the apical K+ channel in the thick ascending limb of the rat kidney.

We have used the patch-clamp technique to study the effect of angiotensin II (AII) on the activity of the apical 70 pS K+ channel and used Na(+)-sensitive fluorescent dye (SBFI) to investigate the effect of AII on intracellular Na+ concentration (Na+i) in the thick ascending limb (TAL) of the rat kidney. Addition of 50 pM AII reversibly reduced NPo, a product of channel open probability (Po) and channel number (N), to 40% of the control value and reduced the Na+i by 26%. The AII (50 pM)-induced decrease in channel activity defined by NPo was partially reversed by addition of 5 microM 17-octadecynoic acid (17-ODYA), an agent which blocks the cytochrome P450 monooxygenase. The notion that P450 metabolites of arachidonic acid (AA) may mediate the inhibitory effect of AII was further suggested by experiments in which addition of 10 nM of 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (20-HETE) blocked the channel activity in cell-attached patches in the presence of 17-ODYA. We have used gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC/MS) to measure the production of 20-HETE, a major AA metabolite of the P450-dependent pathway in the TAL of the rat. Addition of 50 pM AII increased the production of 20-HETE to 260% of the control value, indicating that 20-HETE may be involved in mediating the effect of AII (50 pM). In contrast to the inhibitory effect of 50 pM AII, addition of 50-100 nM AII increased the channel activity to 270% of the control value and elevated the Na+i by 45%. The effect of AII on the activity of the 70 pS K+ channel was also observed in the presence of 5 microM 17-ODYA and 5 microM calphostin C, an inhibitor of protein kinase C. However, addition of 100 microM NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME), an inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase, abolished completely the AII (50-100 nM)-induced increase in channel activity and addition of an exogenous nitric oxide (NO) donor, S-nitroso-N-acetyl-penicillamine (SNAP), increased channel activity in the presence of L-NAME. These data suggest that the stimulatory effect of AII is mediated by NO. We conclude that AII has dual effects on the activity of the apical 70 pS K+ channel. The inhibitory effect of AII is mediated by P450-dependent metabolites whereas the stimulatory effect may be mediated via NO.