Object memory enhancement by combining sub-efficacious doses of specific phosphodiesterase inhibitors.

The second messengers cGMP and cAMP have a vital role in synaptic plasticity and memory processes. As such, phosphodiesterases inhibitors (PDE-Is), which prevent the breakdown of these cyclic nucleotides, represent a potential treatment strategy in memory decline. Recently it has been demonstrated that cGMP and cAMP signaling act in sequence during memory consolidation, with early cGMP signaling requiring subsequent cAMP signaling. Here, we sought to confirm this relationship, and to evaluate its therapeutic implications. Combining sub-efficacious doses of the cGMP-specific PDE type 5 inhibitor vardenafil (0.1 mg/kg) and cAMP-specific PDE type 4 inhibitor rolipram (0.01 mg/kg) during the early and late memory consolidation phase, respectively, led to improved memory performance in a 24 h interval object recognition task. Similarly, such a sub-efficacious combination treatment enhanced the transition of early-phase long-term potentiation (LTP) to late-phase LTP in hippocampal slices. In addition, both object memory and LTP were improved after administration of two sub-efficacious doses of the dual substrate PDE type 2 inhibitor BAY60 7550 (0.3 mg/kg) at the early and late consolidation phase, respectively. Taken together, combinations of sub-efficacious doses of cAMP- and cGMP-specific PDE-Is have an additive effect on long-term synaptic plasticity and memory formation and might prove a superior alternative to single PDE-I treatment.

Improved spatial learning is associated with increased hippocampal but not prefrontal long-term potentiation in mGluR4 knockout mice.

Although much information about metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) and their role in normal and pathologic brain function has been accumulated during the last decades, the role of group III mGluRs is still scarcely documented. Here, we examined mGluR4 knockout mice for types of behavior and synaptic plasticity that depend on either the hippocampus or the prefrontal cortex (PFC). We found improved spatial short- and long-term memory in the radial arm maze, which was accompanied by enhanced long-term potentiation (LTP) in hippocampal CA1 region. In contrast, LTP in the PFC was unchanged when compared with wild-type controls. Changes in paired-pulse facilitation that became overt in the presence of the GABAA antagonist picrotoxin indicated a function of mGluR4 in maintaining the excitation/inhibition balance, which is of crucial importance for information processing in the brain and the deterioration of these processes in neuropsychological disorders such as autism, epilepsy and schizophrenia.

Loss of survivin in neural precursor cells results in impaired long-term potentiation in the dentate gyrus and CA1-region.

In adult mammals, newborn neural precursor cells (NPCs) derived from either the subventricular zone (SVZ) or the subgranular zone (SGZ) migrate into the olfactory bulb and the dentate gyrus (DG), respectively, where some of them mature into excitatory and inhibitory neurons. There is increasing evidence that this neurogenesis process is important for some types of learning and synaptic plasticity and vice versa. Survivin, a member of the inhibitor-of-apoptosis protein (IAP) family, has been suggested to have a central role in the regulation of neurogenesis. The protein is abundantly expressed in nervous tissue during embryonic development while being restricted postnatally to proliferating and migrating NPCs in SVZ and SGZ. Here we examined adult Survivin(Camcre) mice with a conditional deletion of the survivin gene in embryonic neurogenic regions. Although the deletion of survivin had no effect on basic excitability in DG and CA1-region, there was a marked impairment of long-term potentiation (LTP) in these areas. Our data support a function of survivin in hippocampal synaptic plasticity and learning and underline the importance of adult brain neurogenesis for proper operation of the hippocampal tri-synaptic circuit and the physiological functions that depend on it.

An N-methyl-D-aspartate-receptor dependent, late-phase long-term depression in middle-aged mice identifies no GluN2-subunit bias.

Late-phase long-term depression (L-LTD) in middle-aged mice has been difficult to achieve and maintain. Here we report an electrically induced, homosynaptic, input-specific form of LTD that could be stably maintained for at least 4 h in the CA1 area of hippocampal slices of 10-14 months old mice. This form of L-LTD was similar in magnitude in aged, middle-aged and young mice and was blocked by high concentrations of broad-spectrum N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) antagonists such as d(-)-2-amino-5-phospho-pentanoic acid (d-AP5) and (R)-3-(2-carboxypiperazin-4-yl)propyl-1-phosphonic acid (CPP). Extracellular and whole cell recordings revealed a decreased sensitivity to d-AP5 with age, without any differences in NMDAR conductance between the age groups tested. This L-LTD could be inhibited neither by common doses of NMDA-subunit specific antagonists like zinc, ifenprodil and Ro-25-6981, nor by various co-applications of these compounds. In addition to the lack of any GluN2 subunit bias, L-LTD did not show any discernible involvement of L-type voltage-gated calcium channels. In conclusion, our results do not support any specific role of NMDAR subunits in LTD.

The potent non-competitive mGlu1 receptor antagonist BAY 36-7620 differentially affects synaptic plasticity in area cornu ammonis 1 of rat hippocampal slices and impairs acquisition in the water maze task in mice.

In this study we evaluated the effects of the novel, potent non-competitive metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) 1 antagonist (3aS,6aS)-6a-naphthalen-2-ylmethyl-5-methyliden-hexahydro-cyclopental[c]furan-1-on (BAY 36-7620) on different types of synaptic plasticity in the hippocampal cornu ammonis (CA) 1-region and on hippocampus-dependent spatial learning. After having confirmed the presence of mGluR1 in the hippocampal CA1 region of our rat strain by confocal microscopy, we tested the effects of BAY 36-7620 on: 1) long-term potentiation (LTP) induced by weak and strong stimulation; 2) 3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine (DHPG, 30 microM)-induced depression of synaptic transmission; and 3) learning of the hidden platform version of the water maze by mice. BAY 36-7620 (10 microM) amplified LTP but, like the mGluR1 antagonists 7-hydroxyiminocyclopropan[b]chromen-1a-carboxylic acid ethyl ester (CPCCOEt, 10 microM) and 4-carboxyphenylglycine (4-CPG, 50 microM), diminished LTP at 1 microM. The mGluR5 antagonist 6-methyl-2-(phenylethynyl)-pyridine (MPEP, 10 microM) had no effect. BAY 36-7620 (10 microM) did not affect strong LTP. Thus, mGlu 1, but not mGlu 5, receptors modulate LTP elicited by weak stimulation in vitro. DHPG-induced depression of synaptic transmission was only marginally affected by BAY 36-7620 (1 microM) or 4-CPG (100 microM). In a mouse water maze study, BAY 36-7620 (10 mg/kg, i.v.) increased the escape latency and impaired water escape task acquisition during the first 4 days. Drug- and vehicle-treated groups showed comparable performance at day 5. Our data support a role for mGluR1 in LTP and in the acquisition of spatial memory.

Allosteric enhancement of metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 function promotes spatial memory.

Group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) have been implicated in learning and memory formation. Recent findings indicate an important function of the group I mGluR subtype 5. Here, we used the Y-maze spatial alternation task and examined whether enhancement of intrinsic mGluR5 activity immediately after learning, i.e. during a critical period for memory consolidation, would have any consequences on long-term memory retention in rats. Intracerebroventricular application of the allosteric mGluR5 potentiator DFB (3,3'-difluorobenzaldazine) resulted in a marked improvement in spatial alternation retention when it was tested 24 h after training. The promnesic effect increased with the difficulty of the task and was apparently due to a substantial enhancement of consolidation. The applied dose of DFB did not cause behavioral changes in the open field, and was devoid of structural side-effects as evaluated by immunohistochemical examination. Our results suggest an important function of post-training mGluR5 activation in some types of hippocampus-dependent spatial learning.

Interleukin-6: a cytokine to forget.

It is known that proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-6 (IL-6) are expressed in the central nervous system (CNS) during disease conditions and affect several brain functions including memory and learning. In contrast to these effects observed during pathological conditions, here we describe a physiological function of IL-6 in the "healthy" brain in synaptic plasticity and memory consolidation. During long-term potentiation (LTP) in vitro and in freely moving rats, IL-6 gene expression in the hippocampus was substantially increased. This increase was long lasting, specific to potentiation, and was prevented by inhibition of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors with (+/-)-2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid (AP-5). Blockade of endogenous IL-6 by application of a neutralizing anti-IL-6 antibody 90 min after tetanus caused a remarkable prolongation of LTP. Consistently, blockade of endogenous IL-6, 90 min after hippocampus-dependent spatial alternation learning resulted in a significant improvement of long-term memory. In view of the suggested role of LTP in memory formation, these data implicate IL-6 in the mechanisms controlling the kinetics and amount of information storage.

Inhibition of mGluR5 blocks hippocampal LTP in vivo and spatial learning in rats.

Particular subtypes of metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) have been shown to be specifically involved in certain types of long-term synaptic plasticity and learning. We examined whether inhibition of mGluR5 by the specific noncompetitive antagonist 2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)-pyridine (MPEP) has any functional consequences on long-term potentiation in the dentate gyrus in vivo and on learning of a spatial alternation task. Intracerebroventricular application of 13.8 microg MPEP 30 min before tetanization resulted in a rapid decline of potentiation during the first 7 min and a significantly lower potentiation of the MPEP group as compared to controls. The same dose of the antagonist given 30 min before training of a Y-maze spatial alternation task caused a marked impairment of retention tested 24 h later. In contrast, MPEP had virtually no effects on retention if injected immediately after the training session. Our findings suggest an important function of mGluR5 during the initiation of synaptic plasticity and memory formation.

Involvement of neurogranin in the modulation of calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II, synaptic plasticity, and spatial learning: a study with knockout mice.

Neurogranin/RC3 is a neural-specific Ca(2+)-sensitive calmodulin (CaM)-binding protein whose CaM-binding affinity is modulated by phosphorylation and oxidation. Here we show that deletion of the Ng gene in mice did not result in obvious developmental or neuroanatomical abnormalities but caused an impairment of spatial learning and changes in hippocampal short- and long-term plasticity (paired-pulse depression, synaptic fatigue, long-term potentiation induction). These deficits were accompanied by a decreased basal level of the activated Ca(2+)/CaM-dependent kinase II (CaMKII) ( approximately 60% of wild type). Furthermore, hippocampal slices of the mutant mice displayed a reduced ability to generate activated CaMKII after stimulation of protein phosphorylation and oxidation by treatments with okadaic acid and sodium nitroprusside, respectively. These results indicate a central role of Ng in the regulation of CaMKII activity with decisive influences on synaptic plasticity and spatial learning.

Deletion of the ryanodine receptor type 3 (RyR3) impairs forms of synaptic plasticity and spatial learning.

Deletion of the ryanodine receptor type 3 (RyR3) results in specific changes in hippocampal synaptic plasticity, without affecting hippocampal morphology, basal synaptic transmission or presynaptic function. Robust long-term potentiation (LTP) induced by repeated, strong tetanization in the CA1 region and in the dentate gyrus was unaltered in hippocampal slices in vitro, whereas weak forms of plasticity generated by either a single weak tetanization or depotentiation of a robust LTP were impaired. These distinct physiological deficits were paralleled by a reduced flexibility in re-learning a new target in the water-maze. In contrast, learning performance in the acquisition phase and during probe trial did not differ between the mutants and their wild-type littermates. In the open-field, RyR3(-/-) mice displayed a normal exploration and habituation, but had an increased speed of locomotion and a mild tendency to circular running. The observed physiological and behavioral effects implicate RyR3-mediated Ca(2+) release in the intracellular processes underlying spatial learning and hippocampal synaptic plasticity.

A specific role for group I mGluRs in hippocampal LTP and hippocampus-dependent spatial learning.

Metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) have been implicated in long-term potentiation and in learning and memory formation. In this study, we tested the effects of group I mGluR inhibition on synaptic plasticity and learning of rats at different levels of organization (1) in the hippocampal slice preparation; (2) in freely moving animals implanted with chronic hippocampal electrodes; and (3) in different spatial learning paradigms. To allow a direct comparison of the effects obtained the same doses were used in all paradigms. Bath-application of the selective group I mGluR antagonist (S)4-carboxyphenylglycine (4-CPG) impaired a decremental long-term potentiation (LTP) induced by a weak tetanization paradigm, but failed to affect a robust LTP generated by strong tetanization. In contrast, 4-CPG impaired a robust LTP in freely moving animals if applied 30 min before tetanization. The same dose of 4-CPG only impeded spatial learning mildly in the eight-arm radial maze and had no effect on a simple configuration of the Y-maze spatial alternation task. In the more difficult configuration of this task, however, 4-CPG caused complete amnesia. The lack of state-dependent 4-CPG actions and the absence of any 4-CPG effects in the open-field test classify the obtained retention deficit as a selective impairment of memory storage. Our results indicate a specific role of group I mGluRs in certain types of synaptic plasticity and of spatial learning.

The role of group II metabotropic glutamate receptors in hippocampal CA1 long-term potentiation in vitro.

The role of group II metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGlu receptors) in mechanisms of long-term potentiation was investigated by analysis of excitatory postsynaptic field potentials of the CA1 region in rat hippocampal slices. The application of the group II agonists (2S,1'S,2'S)-2-(carboxycyclopropyl) glycine (L-CCG-I) and (2S,1'R,2'R,3'R)-2-(2',3'-dicarboxycyclopropyl) glycine (DCG IV) resulted in a dose-dependent reduction of long term potentiation in the concentration range 3-50 microM. In contrast to the effects of group II agonists on long-term potentiation, the group II antagonists (RS)-alpha-methyl-3-carboxy-4-hydroxy-phenylglycine (M3C4HPG) and (RS)-alpha-methylserine-O-phosphate monophenyl ester (MSOPPE) elicited a dose-dependent enhancement of long-term potentiation (50-100 microM or 20-50 microM, respectively). We conclude that group II mGlu receptors are not essential for the induction of long-term potentiation; however, they may be involved in feedback mechanisms in long-term potentiation.

When are class I metabotropic glutamate receptors necessary for long-term potentiation?

The involvement of metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) in hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP) is a matter of controversial debate. Using [Ca2+]i measurements by confocal laser scanning microscopy and field recordings of EPSPs (fEPSPs) in the hippocampal CA1-region, we found that the efficacy of the broad-spectrum mGluR-antagonist (S)-alpha-methyl-4-carboxyphenylglycine (MCPG) and of (S)-4-carboxy-phenylglycine (4-CPG), a selective antagonist at class I mGluRs, in LTP is contingent on the tetanization strength and the resulting [Ca2+]i response. As indicated by experiments in which we blocked voltage-dependent calcium channels (VDCCs) and intracellular Ca2+ stores (ICSs), the functional significance of class I mGluRs in LTP is confined to certain types of potentiation, which are induced by weak tetanization protocols and require the release of Ca2+ from ICSs for induction. During strong tetanic stimulation, this Ca2+ source is functionally bypassed by activating VDCCs.

Pharmacological characterisation of metabotropic glutamatergic and purinergic receptors linked to Ca2+ signalling in hippocampal astrocytes.

Intracellular Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) signals induced by metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) agonists and by purinergic agonists in cultured hippocampal astrocytes were investigated using [Ca2+]-sensitive fluorophores. The mGluR agonists (1S,3R)-1-aminocyclopentane-1,3-dicarboxylic acid (ACPD) and (R,S)-3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine (DHPG) induced [Ca2+]i responses in 76 and 93% of the cells, respectively. The broad-spectrum mGluR antagonist (+)-alpha-methyl-4-carboxyphenylglycine (MCPG) and the mGluR1 antagonists (S)-4-carboxy-3-hydroxyphenylglycine (4C3HPG) and (S)-4-carboxyphenylglycine (4CPG) suppressed the agonist-evoked [Ca2+]i response in about 25% of the cells completely and in about 60% partially, depending on the agonist concentration employed. Together with immunohistochemical receptor localisations these results suggest the presence of at least two subpopulations of class I mGluRs recruited from the truncated splice variants of mGluR1 (mGluR 1b, 1c, 1d) and/or hitherto unknown glial-specific class I mGluRs. Of the hippocampal astrocytes 88, 92 or 83% of the cells responded with a [Ca2+]i elevation (mostly oscillations) to application of ATP, ADP, or 2-methylthio-ATP (2-MeS-ATP), respectively, whereas only 14 and 5% responded to AMP and adenosine, respectively, indicating the predominance of P2 receptors. The ATP-induced [Ca2+]i signal was suppressed by suramin. Release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores was involved in the response to ATP because the cells also exhibited [Ca2+]i elevations in Ca2+-free medium. Cells did not respond to 10 microM UTP. We conclude that the P2Y subtype represents the main [Ca2+]i-linked purinoceptor in hippocampal astrocytes. Sequential application of ATP and DHPG in Ca-free medium showed that metabotropic glutamate and purinergic receptors initiate release of Ca2+ from subsets of cyclopiazonic acid-sensitive Ca2+ stores which are partly independent.

Inhibition of group I metabotropic glutamate receptors blocks spatial learning in rats.

Metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) are postulated to play a role in long-term potentiation and in learning and memory-formation. Previously, we found that the group I/II mGluR antagonist, (RS)-alpha-methyl-4-carboxyphenylglycine (MCPG), blocks Y-maze spatial alternation learning. In this study, we tested the group I mGluR antagonist (S)4-carboxyphenylglycine (4-CPG) in comparison with MCPG using the same behavioural paradigm. Male Wistar rats were intracerebroventricularly injected with either 29 microg 4-CPG or 209 microg MCPG, 30 min prior to learning. Neither 4-CPG nor MCPG had an effect on spatial alternation performance in the training session. In the memory-retention test 24 h later, however, both the 4-CPG- and the MCPG-treated animals were strongly impaired compared with NaCl-injected control rats. These results suggest a particular importance of group I mGluRs in spatial memory-formation and indicate that MCPG effects found in previous learning experiments were predominantly due to an action at group I mGluRs.

Sustained long term potentiation and anxiety in mice lacking the Mas protooncogene.

The Mas protooncogene is a maternally imprinted gene encoding an orphan G protein-coupled receptor expressed mainly in forebrain and testis. Here, we provide evidence for a function of Mas in the central nervous system. Targeted disruption of the Mas protooncogene leads to an increased durability of long term potentiation in the dentate gyrus, without affecting hippocampal morphology, basal synaptic transmission, and presynaptic function. In addition, Mas-/- mice show alterations in the onset of depotentiation. The permissive influence of Mas ablation on hippocampal synaptic plasticity is paralleled by behavioral changes. While spatial learning in the Morris water maze is not significantly influenced, Mas-deficient animals display an increased anxiety as assessed in the elevated-plus maze. Thus, Mas is an important modulating factor in the electrophysiology of the hippocampus and is involved in behavioral pathways in the adult brain.

A neuromodulatory role of interleukin-1beta in the hippocampus.

It is widely accepted that interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta), a cytokine produced not only by immune cells but also by glial cells and certain neurons influences brain functions during infectious and inflammatory processes. It is still unclear, however, whether IL-1 production is triggered under nonpathological conditions during activation of a discrete neuronal population and whether this production has functional implications. Here, we show in vivo and in vitro that IL-1beta gene expression is substantially increased during long-term potentiation of synaptic transmission, a process considered to underlie certain forms of learning and memory. The increase in gene expression was long lasting, specific to potentiation, and could be prevented by blockade of potentiation with the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist, (+/-)-2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid (AP-5). Furthermore, blockade of IL-1 receptors by the specific interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra) resulted in a reversible impairment of long-term potentiation maintenance without affecting its induction. These results show for the first time that the production of biologically significant amounts of IL-1beta in the brain can be induced by a sustained increase in the activity of a discrete population of neurons and suggest a physiological involvement of this cytokine in synaptic plasticity.

Deficits in memory tasks of mice with CREB mutations depend on gene dosage.

Studies in Aplysia, Drosophila, and mice have shown that the transcription factor CREB is involved in formation and retention of long-term memory. To analyze the impact of differential CREB levels on learning and memory, we varied the gene dosage of CREB in two strains of mutant mice: (1) CREBalphadelta mice, in which the alpha and delta isoforms are disrupted, but a third isoform beta is strongly up-regulated; (2) CREBcomp, a compound strain with one alphadelta allele and one CREBnull allele in which all CREB isoforms are disrupted. To minimize genetic background effects, CREB mutations were backcrossed into a C57BL/6 and a FVB/N strain, respectively, and studies were performed in F1 hybrids from these lines. CREBcomp but not CREBalphadelta F1 hybrids were impaired in water maze learning and fear conditioning, demonstrating a CREB gene dosage effect. However, analysis of the platform searching strategies in the water maze task suggested that CREBcomp mutants are impaired in behavioral flexibility rather than in spatial memory. In contrast to previous experiments using CREBalphadelta mice with different genetic background, the F1 hybrid CREBalphadelta and CREBcomp mice did not show deficits in a social transmission of food preference task nor in dentate gyrus and CA1 LTP as recorded from slice preparations. These data indicate that the hybrid vigor typical for F1 hybrids may compensate for a reduction in CREB levels in some tests. On the other hand, the persistence of clear behavioral deficits as shown by the F1 hybrid CREBcomp mice in water maze and fear conditioning indicates a robust and repeatable phenomenon that will permit further functional analysis of CREB.

Age dependency of infradian rhythms in enzymuria of female volunteers.

The enzyme excretion of dipeptidylpeptidase IV (EC 3.4.14.5), gamma-glutamyltransferase (EC 2.3.2.2), and alanine aminopeptidase (EC 3.4.11) was pursued in three different age groups of female volunteers over a period of 70 days. The first group (1-3 years: n = 6) consisted of girls living in a children's home, the second (26-50 years, n = 7) of medical staff and the third (65-87 years, n = 7) of the inhabitants of an old-age home. Subsequent to basic statistics the excretion patterns were analyzed by spectral analysis with the maximum entropy method. The mean values of all enzymes displayed a distinct age-dependency. The highest levels of enzyme excretion were found in the early childhood. In all groups infradian changes of enzyme excretion were detected. In excretion of gamma-glutamyltransferase, longer periods between 12 and 24 days predominated during the early childhood, whereas in the middle, and in particular in the higher age, shorter dominant periods occurred more frequently. The excretion of alanine aminopeptidase displayed a similar tendency. Circaseptan periods (7 +/- 1 days) were rarely observed among the dominant periods of the maximum entropy method spectra. A correlation analysis of the individual excretion patterns revealed that the excretion of all three bush-border enzymes is most tightly correlated in the early childhood (coefficients of correlation up to 0.9). In contrast, the correlation between enzymes and creatinine excretion was low in all age groups.