Role of signal transduction in internalization of the G protein-coupled receptor for parathyroid hormone (PTH) and PTH-related protein.

For G protein-coupled receptors, limited information is available on the role of agonist binding or of the second-messenger products of receptor signaling on receptor endocytosis. We explored this problem using the opossum PTH/PTH-related protein (PTHrP) receptor, a prototypical Class II G protein-coupled receptor, as a model. In one approach, we evaluated the endocytic properties of mutated forms of the opossum PTH/PTHrP receptor that we had previously shown to be impaired in their ability to initiate agonist-induced signaling when expressed in COS-7 cells. A point mutation in the third cytoplasmic loop (K382A) that severely impairs PTH/PTHrP receptor signaling significantly reduced internalization, whereas two mutant receptors that displayed only partial defects in signaling were internalized normally. To explore more directly the role of second-messenger pathways, we used a cleavable biotinylation method to assess endocytosis of the wild-type receptor stably expressed in human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 cells. A low rate of constitutive internalization was detected (<5% over a 30-min incubation at 37 C); the rate of receptor internalization was enhanced about 10-fold by the receptor agonists PTH(1-34) or PTHrP(1-34), whereas the receptor antagonist PTH(7-34) had no effect. Forskolin treatment produced a minimal increase in constitutive receptor endocytosis, and the protein kinase (PK)-A inhibitor H-89 failed to block agonist-stimulated endocytosis. Similarly, activation of PK-C, by treatment with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate, elicited only a minimal increase in constitutive receptor endocytosis; and blockade of the PK-C pathway, by treatment with a bisindolylmaleimide, failed to inhibit agonist-induced receptor endocytosis. Immunofluorescence confocal microscopic studies of PTH/PTHrP receptor internalization confirmed the results using receptor biotinylation. These findings suggest that: 1) agonist binding is required for the efficient endocytosis of the PTH/PTHrP receptor; 2) receptor activation (agonist-induced receptor conformational change) and/or coupling to G proteins plays a critical role in receptor internalization; and 3) activation of PK-A and PK-C is neither necessary nor sufficient for agonist-stimulated receptor internalization.

Identification of phosphorylation sites in the G protein-coupled receptor for parathyroid hormone. Receptor phosphorylation is not required for agonist-induced internalization.

In some G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), agonist-dependent phosphorylation by specific GPCR kinases (GRKs) is an important mediator of receptor desensitization and endocytosis. Phosphorylation and the subsequent events that it triggers, such as arrestin binding, have been suggested to be regulatory mechanisms for a wide variety of GPCRs. In the present study, we investigated whether agonist-induced phosphorylation of the PTH receptor, a class II GPCR, also regulates receptor internalization. Upon agonist stimulation, the PTH receptor was exclusively phosphorylated on serine residues. Phosphoamino acid analysis of a number of receptor mutants in which individual serine residues had been replaced by threonine identified serine residues in positions 485, 486, and 489 of the cytoplasmic tail as sites of phosphorylation after agonist treatment. When serine residues at positions 483, 485, 486, 489, 495, and 498 were simultaneously replaced by alanine residues, the PTH receptor was no longer phosphorylated either basally or in response to PTH. The substitution of these serine residues by alanine affected neither the number of receptors expressed on the cell surface nor the ability of the receptor to signal via Gs. Overexpression of GRK2, but not GRK3, enhanced PTH-stimulated receptor phosphorylation, and this phosphorylation was abolished by alanine mutagenesis of residues 483, 485, 486, 489, 495, and 498. Thus, phosphorylation of the PTH receptor by the endogenous kinase in HEK-293 cells occurs on the same residues targeted by overexpressed GRK2. Strikingly, the rate and extent of PTH-stimulated internalization of mutated PTH receptors lacking phosphorylation sites were identical to that observed for the wild-type PTH receptor. Moreover, overexpressed GRK2, while enhancing the phosphorylation of the wild-type PTH receptor, had no affect on the rate or extent of receptor internalization in response to PTH. Thus, the agonist-occupied PTH receptor is phosphorylated by a kinase similar or identical to GRK2 in HEK-293 cells, but this phosphorylation is not requisite for efficient receptor endocytosis.

Transmembrane residues together with the amino terminus limit the response of the parathyroid hormone (PTH) 2 receptor to PTH-related peptide.

The mechanisms of ligand binding and receptor activation for G-protein-coupled receptors in the secretin/parathyroid hormone (PTH) receptor subfamily are not understood. The PTH1 receptor (PTH1R) signals in response to both PTH and parathyroid hormone-related peptide (PTHrP), whereas the PTH2 receptor (PTH2R) responds only to PTH, not to PTHrP. To locate PTHrP discriminatory domains in the PTH2R, we generated PTH1R/PTH2R chimeras in which the extracellular amino-terminal domains were exchanged. Production of cAMP in response to 1 microM PTHrP or PTH was identical in cells expressing the PTH1R with the PTH2R amino terminus and in cells expressing the PTH2R with the PTH1R amino terminus. The ability of the chimeric receptor with the PTH2R amino terminus to respond fully to PTHrP showed that the body of the PTH2R must contain sites that limit the response to PTHrP. Mutations to PTH1R sequence were therefore made in each of the seven transmembrane domains of the PTH2R. Mutations in transmembrane domains 3 and 7 resulted in receptors able to respond to PTHrP. Thus, residues in more than one domain form a barrier or filter, allowing the receptor to discriminate between different ligands.

The N-terminal region of the third intracellular loop of the parathyroid hormone (PTH)/PTH-related peptide receptor is critical for coupling to cAMP and inositol phosphate/Ca2+ signal transduction pathways.

Structural determinants within the parathyroid hormone (PTH)/PTH-related peptide (PTHrP) receptor that mediate G-protein activation of adenylate cyclase and phospholipase C are unknown. We investigated the role of the N-terminal region of the third intracellular loop of the opossum PTH/PTHrP receptor in coupling to two signal transduction pathways. We mutated residues in this region by tandem-alanine scanning and expressed these mutant receptors in COS-7 cells and/or Xenopus oocytes. All mutant receptors retained high affinity PTH binding in COS-7 cells, indistinguishable from wild-type receptors. Receptors with tandem-alanine substitutions in two N-terminal segments (377RVL379 and 381TKLR384) demonstrated impaired adenylate cyclase and phospholipase C activation. Receptor mutants with single-alanine substitutions scanning these two segments showed three different signaling defects in COS-7 cells. 1) Two mutant receptors (V378A and L379A) had reduced inositol phosphate (IP), but normal cAMP responses to PTH. 2) Mutant receptor T381A showed reduced cAMP, but wild-type IP responses to PTH. 3) Mutant receptor K382A demonstrated both markedly reduced cAMP and IP production due to PTH. In oocytes, mutants T381A and K382A showed decreased PTH-stimulated cAMP accumulation and intracellular Ca2+ mobilization. Thus, the N-terminal region of the third intracellular loop of this receptor plays a critical role in coupling to both Gs- and Gq-mediated second-messenger generation.

Phosphorylation of the cytoplasmic tail of the PTH/PTHrP receptor.

Activation of the G protein-coupled receptor for parathyroid hormone (PTH)/PTH-related protein (PTHrP) produces homologous desensitization of receptor signaling. We have shown recently that the opossum PTH/PTHrP receptor stably expressed in human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 cells is phosphorylated upon agonist binding and upon activation of serine/threonine protein kinases (PKA and PKC), an event which for some G protein-coupled receptors has been linked to desensitization. To locate the sites of phosphorylation, mutated forms of the opossum PTH/PTHrP receptor were stably expressed in HEK 293 cells, and ligand-stimulated receptor phosphorylation was evaluated. The five serine and threonine residues of the third cytoplasmic loop of the receptor were not required for receptor phosphorylation. Basal and ligand-induced phosphorylation were, however, completely abolished upon deletion of all but the 16 juxtamembrane residues of the cytoplasmic C-terminal tail of the receptor, even though this truncated receptor resembled the wild-type receptor in its level of expression based on Western blotting and radioligand binding. To identify further the phosphorylation sites, the 129 amino acid C-terminal tail of the rat PTH/PTHrP receptor was expressed in E. coli as a recombinant glutathione S-transferase fusion protein. Elimination of a single PKA consensus site in the tail (serine 491) resulted in > or = 90% loss of PKA-mediated phosphorylation, identifying this as the preferential site for PKA, with two other sites (serine 473 and/or 475) being minor sites. Phosphorylation by PKC occurred largely in the proximal portion of the tail, whereas beta-adrenergic receptor kinase 1 (beta ARK1) phosphorylated more distally in the tail. The ability of these kinases to phosphorylate the PTH/PTHrP receptor at distinct sites on the cytoplasmic tail may allow differential regulation of receptor signaling and trafficking.

A putative selectivity filter in the G-protein-coupled receptors for parathyroid hormone and secretion.

The seven transmembrane segments (TMs) of many G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are thought to form a cavity into which cognate ligands insert, leading to receptor activation. Residues lining the cavity are often essential for optimal ligand binding and/or signal transduction. The present studies evaluated whether residues lining the cavity also contribute to specificity, using GPCRs for the polypeptides parathyroid hormone (PTH) and secretin as models. These ligands display no sequence homology with one another, and neither ligand cross-reacts with the other's receptor. However, mutation of a single amino acid in the second TM of the secretin receptor to the corresponding residue in the PTH receptor (N192I) resulted in a receptor that binds and signals in response to PTH. The reciprocal mutation in the PTH receptor (I234N) likewise unmasked responsiveness to secretin. Neither mutation significantly altered the response of the receptors to their own ligands. The results suggest a model of specificity wherein TM residues near the extracellular surface of the receptor function as a selectivity filter that restricts access of inappropriate ligands to an activation site in the transmembrane cavity.

Mutations of neighboring polar residues on the second transmembrane helix disrupt signaling by the parathyroid hormone receptor.

Site-directed mutagenesis was used to assess the role of transmembrane (TM)-charged amino acids in the expression and function of the G protein-coupled receptor for PTH and PTH-related protein (PTHrP). Charged residues that are conserved in the TM regions of most or all members of the PTH/secretin receptor subfamily were targeted. Four mutants (E296A, R337A, H414A, and E459K) displayed properties similar to the wild type PTH/PTHrP receptor with respect to agonist binding and stimulation of adenylyl cyclase when expressed in COS-7 cells. Several mutations, all in TM II, produced receptors that signaled extremely poorly. Mutation of three residues (227S, 230R, and 233S), predicted to be aligned on one helical face of TM II, displayed a similar phenotype: markedly blunted adenylyl cyclase activity in response to PTH (20-30% of the wild type response) and a lower binding affinity for agonist, with no reduction in cell surface receptor expression. These results suggest that TM II contains a polar face that is involved in TM signaling by the PTH/PTHrP receptor. Two of these mutations were made at the corresponding sites in the secretin receptor, and a similar reduction in secretin-stimulated adenylyl cyclase activity was observed. Thus this region of TM II may participate in a mechanism of TM signal transduction that is shared by the PTH/secretin sub-family of G protein-coupled receptors.

Agonist-stimulated phosphorylation of the G protein-coupled receptor for parathyroid hormone (PTH) and PTH-related protein.

The objectives of the present study were to determine whether the G protein-coupled receptor for PTH and PTH-related protein (PTHrP) is subject to agonist-specific phosphorylation and to characterize the relevant kinase(s). The opossum kidney PTH/PTHrP receptor stably expressed in human embryonic kidney 293 cells was coupled to adenylyl cyclase, with half-maximal activation occurring in the presence of 0.1 nM bovine (b) PTH-(1-34). Immunoprecipitation of extracts of 32P-labeled cells using a monoclonal antibody to the PTH/PTHrP receptor revealed the presence of a major 32P-labeled protein of approximately 85 kilodaltons that was not evident in untransfected 293 cells. bPTH-(1-34) treatment produced a rapid dose-dependent increase in phosphorylation of the 85-kilodalton receptor, with a maximal effect that was 3.5 +/- 0.7-fold (n = 4) over basal. Half-maximal phosphorylation occurred with 10 nM bPTH-(1-34), similar to the hormone concentration required for 50% receptor occupancy. Activation of protein kinase A or protein kinase C with forskolin or phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate also increased PTH/PTHrP receptor phosphorylation, but to a lesser degree than PTH. Neither of these kinases mediated the effect of PTH, as blockade of the protein kinase A pathway (with H-89) or the protein kinase C pathway (with the bisindolylmaleimide GF 109203X) did not inhibit bPTH-(1-34)-induced PTH/PTHrP receptor phosphorylation. These results suggest that agonist-stimulated PTH/PTHrP receptor phosphorylation may involve a nonsecond messenger-activated kinase, such as a member of the G protein-coupled receptor kinase family.

Mutational analysis of the cytoplasmic tail of the G protein-coupled receptor for parathyroid hormone (PTH) and PTH-related protein: effects on receptor expression and signaling.

The present studies were undertaken to examine the role of the cytoplasmic tail of the G protein-coupled receptor for PTH and PTH-related protein (PTHrP) on receptor signaling and expression. The wild type (WT) receptor (585 amino acids) and five truncated receptors whose cytoplasmic tails terminated at residues 507, 494, 474, 466, and 458 were expressed in COS-7 cells. Based on [125I]PTHrP binding, mutants T507, T494, and T466 displayed progressively decreased levels of expression, compared with WT. The tailless mutant T458 was not expressed in a functional form, whereas T474 was expressed at a level similar to WT. Comparable results were obtained when expression levels of WT and mutated PTH/PTHrP receptors were evaluated by Western blotting. Binding affinities were similar for all mutated receptors (IC50 = 1-2 nM). Immunocytochemistry showed that WT and mutated receptors were diffusely distributed, presumably at the cell surface, except for the tailless mutant T458, which displayed striking perinuclear localization. T458 did not display an adenylyl cyclase response to PTH, while the other mutants were similar to WT both with respect to their maximal adenylyl cyclase responses to PTH and to their EC50 values. Cai2+ signaling properties of these mutants were assessed as PTH-stimulated 45Ca efflux from Xenopus oocytes that had been injected with in vitro transcribed PTH/PTHrP receptor cRNAs. The WT and mutated receptors (except for T458) responded to PTH with significant (6- to 27-fold) increases in 45Ca efflux.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Functional properties of a synthetic chicken parathyroid hormone-related protein 1-36 fragment.

The biologic activities of human parathyroid hormone-related protein [hPTHrP(1-34] and bovine PTH [bPTH(1-34)] are remarkably similar despite marked sequence divergence in their primary binding domain, residues 25-34. Chicken PTHrP (cPTHrP) is identical to hPTHrP through residue 21. However, in the 25-34 region, cPTHrP displays three fewer basic residues than hPTHrP and contains five residues not present in any other member of the PTH/PTHrP family. To assess the biologic consequences of these structural differences, we compared the activities of synthetic [36Tyr]cPTHrP(1-36)NH2 and hPTHrP(1-34)NH2 with those of bPTH(1-34) in avian systems (chicken renal plasma membranes and 19 day chick embryonic bone cells) and mammalian systems [canine renal plasma membranes and rat osteosarcoma cells (UMR-106-H5)]. In both avian and mammalian systems the binding affinity of [36Tyr]cPTHrP(1-36)NH2 (0.8-3.4 nM) was approximately one-half that of hPTHrP(1-34)NH2 (0.4-1.1 nM). The potencies of [36Tyr]cPTHrP(1-36)NH2 and hPTHrP(1-34)NH2 for activation of adenylate cyclase were similar in canine renal membranes (5.2 and 6.7 nM) and chick bone cells (1.0 nM). In UMR-106 cells and chicken renal membranes the potency of [36Tyr[cPTHrP(1-36)NH2 for activation of adenylate cyclase was about one-half that of [36Tyr]hPTHrP(1-36)NH2. Binding of 125I-[36Tyr]cPTHrP(1-36)NH2 to chick bone cells and chicken renal membranes was completely displaced by bPTH(1-34) and hPTHrP(1-34)NH2: thus there was no evidence for a distinct chicken PTHrP receptor. In general, [36Tyr]cPTHrP(1-36)NH2 and hPTHrP(1-34)NH2 activated adenylate cyclase similarly despite their sequence differences in the 25-32 region.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Two homologs of the Drosophila polarity gene frizzled (fz) are widely expressed in mammalian tissues.

The frizzled (fz) locus of Drosophila encodes a protein (Fz) with a seven-transmembrane-domain profile characteristic of G-protein-coupled receptors. In Drosophila, genetic evidence suggests that Fz functions to transmit and transduce polarity signals in epidermal cells during hair and bristle development. We have isolated from a UMR 106 rat osteosarcoma cell library a cDNA (fz-1) encoding a predicted 641-residue protein (Fz-1) with 46% homology with Drosophila Fz. We also identified a second cDNA (fz-2) encoding a protein (Fz-2) of 570 amino acids that is 80% homologous with Fz-1, with divergence most evident in the extracellular domains. Southern blots of rat genomic DNA indicated that fz-1 and fz-2 represent distinct genes. Northern analysis revealed the presence of a single fz-1 mRNA (4.7 kilobases) and two fz-2 mRNAs (2.5 and 4.5 kilobases) in rat tissues. The fz-1 and fz-2 genes are widely expressed in rat tissues with the highest steady-state levels of mRNA in kidney, liver, heart, uterus, and ovary. fz-1 and -2 mRNA levels were greater in neonatal than in corresponding adult tissues. Treatment of UMR 106 cells with bone resorbing agents including parathyroid hormone, epidermal growth factor, and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 produced increases in fz-1 and -2 mRNA levels. We suggest that hormonal induction of Fz proteins in osteoblasts serves to promote intercellular signaling required for functional responses such as increased bone resorption. Fz-1 and Fz-2 may represent products of a gene family whose members serve as transducers or intercellular transmitters of signals required for normal morphogenesis and/or differentiated function in diverse tissues.

Features of the renal parathyroid hormone-parathyroid hormone-related protein receptor derived from structural studies of receptor fragments.

Our earlier results indicated that the binding moiety of the renal PTH receptor is an 85 kD protein that is susceptible to proteolytic cleavage to a 70 kD form that supports high-affinity binding and Gs coupling, and to a 50-55 kD form that contains the ligand binding domain but does not couple to Gs. In the present study we used [125I]hPTHrP-(1-34)amide and a chemical cross-linking technique to discern the structural features of the intact 85 kD PTH/PTHrP receptor that are retained in the proteolyzed forms to "structurally map" the receptor. The results of lectin chromatography and endoglycosidase treatment show that the partially proteolyzed receptor forms retain the complex, N-linked glycans present on the intact receptor. This conclusion is further supported by the finding that wheat germ agglutinin was equally effective at competitively inhibiting specific [125I]hPTHrP-(1-34)A binding to the 70 kD form and the intact 85 kD receptor. Specific binding of [125I]hPTHrP-(1-34)A to the intact 85 kD receptor or to the 70 kD form was completely abolished by treatment with disulfide reducing agents, and both partially proteolyzed receptor forms (70- and 50 kD) were shown to retain the small (less than or equal to 14 kD) labeled fragment that is released from the intact receptor by disulfide reduction. Lectin chromatography and endoglycosidase treatment revealed that the less than or equal to 14 kD receptor component is not glycosylated. The less than or equal to 14 kD fragment does not contain a transmembrane spanning region, as its release from the membrane can be affected without detergent solubilization. Identical partial proteolytic maps of the receptor were obtained whether the receptor was covalently labeled with [125I]hPTHrP-(1-34)amide or [125I]bPTH-(1-34). These results suggest a model of the renal PTH/PTHrP receptor binding moiety as a single-chain protein in which the sites of glycosylation, ligand binding, and the functionally critical disulfide bonds are in extracellular domains near one end of the protein and the sites of proteolysis reside near the other end of the protein. These studies also provide further confirmation that PTH and PTHrP bind to a structurally indistinguishable renal receptor and validate the use of PTHrP as a ligand for studies designed to characterize and purify the PTH receptor.

Structural properties of the renal parathyroid hormone receptor: hydrodynamic analysis and protease sensitivity.

The highly specific ligand [125I]bovine (b) PTH-(1-34) and a chemical cross-linking technique were used to explore structural features of the canine renal cortical PTH receptor. Membranes isolated under conditions designed to inhibit endogenous proteolysis displayed a major 85K labeled PTH receptor moiety on sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Cross-linked receptors were solubilized with Lubrol-PX and partially purified by affinity chromatography on wheat germ agglutinin-agarose, and their hydrodynamic properties were assessed [Stokes radius = 7.3 +/- 0.1 nm; sedimentation coefficient = 6.4 +/- 0.2S; partial specific volume = 0.758 +/- 0.01 ml/g; frictional coefficient = 1.68 +/- 0.04; mol wt (Mr) = 216,000 +/- 14,000]. Corrections for detergent binding and for the presence of carbohydrate yielded an estimated Mr of 166,000 +/- 11,000 for the solubilized PTH receptor. Thus, the renal PTH receptor is oligomeric, with a Mr approximating that expected of a homodimer of 85K subunits. Peptide-mapping experiments revealed the presence within the 85K PTH receptor subunit of at least two major regions sensitive to proteolytic attack. Both elastase and an endogenous renal protease(s) cleaved the PTH receptor to a 70K form that is fully functional with respect to high affinity, guanyl nucleotide-sensitive PTH binding. Cleavage in a second domain by elastase, S. aureus V8 protease, or chymotrypsin generated a 50K labeled PTH receptor fragment. Cleavage at this second site was prevented by prior occupancy of the receptor with [125I]bPTH-(1-34), suggesting that this domain may be functionally important. Reduction of receptor disulfide bonds with dithiothreitol and beta-mercaptoethanol released a low Mr (less than or equal to 14K) labeled PTH receptor component, similar treatment of renal membranes abolished specific PTH binding, indicating that an intact disulfide bond(s) is essential for receptor function. These results provide new insights into the structural basis of PTH receptor function.

The canine renal parathyroid hormone receptor is a glycoprotein: characterization and partial purification.

Covalent labeling of the canine renal parathyroid hormone receptor with [125I]bPTH(1-34) reveals several major binding components that display characteristics consistent with a physiologically relevant adenylate cyclase linked receptor. Through the use of the specific glycosidases neuraminidase and endoglycosidase F and affinity chromatography on lectin-agarose gels, we show here that the receptor is a glycoprotein that contains several complex N-linked carbohydrate chains consisting of terminal sialic acid and penultimate galactose in a beta 1,4 linkage to N-acetyl-D-glucosamine. No high mannose chains or O-linked glycans appear to be present. The peptide molecular weight of the deglycosylated labeled receptor is 62,000 [or 58,000 if the mass of bPTH(1-34) is excluded]. The binding of [125I]bPTH(1-34) to the receptor is inhibited in a dose-dependent fashion by wheat-germ agglutinin, but not by either succinylated wheat-germ agglutinin or Ricinus communis lectin, suggesting that terminal sialic acid may be involved in agonist binding. A combination of lectin affinity chromatography and immunoaffinity chromatography affords a 200-fold purification of the covalently labeled receptor.

Covalent labeling of a high-affinity, guanyl nucleotide sensitive parathyroid hormone receptor in canine renal cortex.

Putative parathyroid hormone (PTH) receptors in canine renal membranes were affinity labeled with 125I-bPTH(1-34) using the heterobifunctional cross-linking reagent N-hydroxysuccinimidyl 4-azidobenzoate. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis revealed the presence of a major 85,000 molecular weight (Mr) PTH binding component, the labeling of which was inhibited by nanomolar concentrations of unlabeled PTH and by micromolar concentrations of 5'-guanylyl imidodiphosphate [Gpp-(NH)p]. Labeling was not influenced by the unrelated peptides insulin and arginine vasopressin. Minor PTH binding components of Mr 55,000 and 130,000 were also seen, and labeling of these was likewise sensitive to unlabeled PTH and to Gpp(NH)p. Omission of protease inhibitors during the isolation of plasma membranes resulted in the loss of the Mr 85,000 PTH binding species and the appearance of an Mr 70,000 form. Several minor PTH binding components also were observed. Equilibrium binding studies showed that such membranes had an affinity for PTH indistinguishable from that in membranes isolated with protease inhibitors and displaying a major Mr 85,000 PTH binding species. We conclude that the major form of the adenylate cyclase coupled PTH receptor in canine renal membranes is an Mr 85,000 protein. An endogenous enzyme, probably a lysosomal cathepsin, can cleave this form to produce an Mr 70,000 receptor that retains full functional activity with respect to high-affinity, guanyl nucleotide sensitive PTH binding. The ability to covalently label the PTH receptor in high yield represents a major step toward the structural characterization of this important detector molecule.

Mechanism of the direct action of gonadotropin-releasing hormone and its antagonist on androgen biosynthesis by cultured rat testicular cells.

The direct effects of GnRH and its agonistic and antagonistic analogs upon testicular androgen biosynthesis were studied in primary cultures of testicular cells obtained from adult hypophysectomized rats. Treatment of cultured cells with hCG (10 ng/ml) substantially increased testosterone production, while concomitant addition of GnRH or its agonist [des-Gly10, D-Ser(TBu)6,Pro9NHEt-GnRH] decreased hCG-stimulated testosterone production in a dose-related manner with ED50 values of 1.2 X 10(-9) and 4.5 X 10(-11) M, respectively. Treatment with 10(-6) M of either a GnRH partial peptide or a cyclic GnRH analog did not affect hCG action; however, the addition of a GnRH antagonist ([Ac-D-Phe1,D-p-Cl-Phe2,D-Trp3,6]GnRH) together with hCG and GnRH blocked the GnRH-induced decrease in testosterone production, with a half-maximal inhibitory dose ratio (antagonist to GnRH) of 0.15. The stimulatory effect of hCG became apparent by 8 h of incubation; no hCG effect was seen at this time in the presence of GnRH. Treatment with hCG increased cAMP accumulation, but GnRH administration did not affect hCG-induced cAMP accumulation. In contrast, treatment with GnRH depressed testosterone production induced by cholera toxin or (Bu)2cAMP. The inhibitory effect of GnRH on testosterone production (93% inhibition) was associated with decreases in hCG-induced 17 alpha-hydroxyprogesterone (39%) and delta 4-androstenedione (82%), but was not accompanied by a decrease in progesterone production. In cells incubated with cyanoketone and spironolactone to prevent pregnenolone metabolism, hCG stimulated pregnenolone biosynthesis, while concomitant GnRH treatment did not affect hCG action. In contrast, GnRH decreased hCG-induced testosterone production in cells treated with 10(-5) M progesterone. Similarly, GnRH decreased hCG-induced testosterone and androstenedione production in cells incubated with 10(-5) M 17 alpha-hydroxyprogesterone. The present results demonstrate that GnRH and its analogs exert direct actions on testicular cells through stereospecific recognition sites. The inhibitory effect of GnRH on testicular androgen production occurs at sites distal to the formation of cAMP and pregnenolone and may be due to decreases in the activity of the enzymes 17 alpha-hydroxylase and 17-20 desmolase.

Mechanism of glucocorticoid-induced suppression of testicular androgen biosynthesis in vitro.

The mechanism whereby glucocorticoids directly inhibit gonadotropin-stimulated testosterone production was studied by using primary cultures of testicular cells from adult hypophysectomized rats. Testicular cells were maintained in serum-free media with hormone treatments administered on Day 8 and media collected 48 h later for steroid and cAMP measurement. Highly purified human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) increased testosterone production relative to controls. Concomitant administration of either natural (cortisone greater than deoxycorticosterone = aldosterone) or synthetic (dexamethasone greater than or equal to prednisolone) corticosteroids inhibited hCG-stimulated testosterone production in a dose-dependent manner. Dexamethasone at 10(-7) M decreased testosterone production by approximately 50-60% and this inhibitory effect was reversible upon removal of the glucocorticoid. In the presence or absence of a phosphodiesterase inhibitor, dexamethasone decreased hCG-stimulated cAMP production by approximately 60%. Dexamethasone also decreased testosterone production induced by cholera toxin and (Bu)2 cAMP by 43 and 63%, respectively. The dexamethasone suppression of testosterone production was accompanied by marked decreases in androstenedione (80% decrease) and 17 alpha-hydroxyprogesterone (57%) production, with a lesser effect on progesterone production (28% decrease) and no effect on pregnenolone production. Exogenous progesterone and 17 alpha-hydroxyprogesterone augmented hCG-stimulated testosterone production. Dexamethasone reduced the conversion of exogenous progesterone to testosterone by 33% but did not affect the conversion of 17 alpha-hydroxyprogesterone to androstenedione and testosterone, suggesting a specific inhibition of 17 alpha-hydroxylase. These results suggest that glucocorticoids directly suppress Leydig cell steroidogenesis by decreasing gonadotropin stimulation of cAMP production and the activity of 17 alpha-hydroxylase.

Direct inhibitory effect of glucocorticoids upon testicular luteinizing hormone receptor and steroidogenesis in vivo and in vitro.

The direct effects of glucocorticoids on testicular LH receptor content and steroidogenesis were studied in vivo and in vitro. Immature hypophysectomized rats were treated with varying doses of dexamethasone, corticosterone, or a synthetic progestin, 17,21-dimethyl-19-nor-pregna-4,9-diene-3,20-dione (R5020). Some animals were also treated concomitantly with FSH to prevent the hypophysectomy-induced decrease in testis functions. At the end of 5 days of treatment, testicular LH/hCG receptor content was measured by [125I]hCG binding assay while steroidogenic responsiveness was measured by in vitro incubation of testes. Dexamethasone decreased testicular LH receptor in control and FSH-treated hypophysectomized rats in doses as low as 10 microgram/day, whereas corticosterone (10 microgram/day) decreased testicular LH receptor in the FSH-treated rats but had no effect in rats not treated with FSH. In contrast, R5020 had no effect on testicular LH receptor content. In vivo treatment of hypophysectomized rats with FSH increased both basal and hCG-stimulated production of androstanediol in vitro. In contrast, concomitant treatment with dexamethasone, but not R5020, decreased both basal and hCG-stimulated testicular androstanediol production. The direct effect of glucocorticoids on testicular steroidogenic potentials was also studied in primary culture of testicular cells obtained from adult hypophysectomized rats. Treatment of cultured testicular cells wtih hCG increased testosterone production. The addition of various natural and synthetic glucocorticoids, but not R5020, to hCG-treated cells decreased testosterone production in a dose- and time-related manner (triamcinolone greater than or equal to dexamethasone greater than cortisol greater than or equal to corticosterone). A 40% decrease in testosterone production was apparent at 6 h after addition of 10(-7) M dexamethasone to hCG-treated cells. These results demonstrate the direct inhibitory effect of glucocorticoids on testicular LH receptor content and steroidogenesis, suggesting the adrenal glucocorticoids may regulate testis functions.

Disparate effect of clomiphene and tamoxifen on pituitary gonadotropin release in vitro.

The direct effects of clomiphene citrate (Clomid), tamoxifen, and estradiol (E2) on the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)-stimulated release of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) were studied in cultured anterior pituitary cells obtained from adult ovariectomized rats. Treatment of pituitary cells with Clomid or enclomid (10(-8) M) in vitro for 2 days resulted in a marked sensitization of the gonadotroph to GnRH as reflected by a 6.5-fold decrease in the ED50 of GnRH in terms of LH release from 2.2 x 10(-9) M in untreated cells to 3.6 x 10(-10) M. Treatment with E2 or Clomid also increased the sensitivity of the gonadotroph to GnRH in terms of FSH release by 4.3- and 3.3-fold respectively. Tamoxifen, a related antiestrogen, comparable to Clomid in terms of its ability to compete with E2 for pituitary estrogen receptors, was without effect on the GnRH-stimulated LH release at a concentration of 10(-7) M. Furthermore, tamoxifen, unlike Clomid, caused an apparent but not statistically significant inhibition of the sensitizing effect of E2 on the GnRH-stimulated release of LH. Our findings suggest that Clomid and its Enclomid isomer, unlike tamoxifen, exert a direct estrogenic rather than an antiestrogenic effect on cultured pituitary cells by enhancing the GnRH-stimulated release of gonadotropin.

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone and its agonist inhibit testicular luteinizing hormone receptor and steroidogenesis in immature and adult hypophysectomized rats.

The direct effect of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and its agonist on testicular LH receptor and steroidogenesis was studied in hypophysectomized immature and adult rats. Hypophysectomized rats were treated daily with varying doses of GnRH or [des-Gly10,D-Leu6(N alpha Me)Leu7, Pro9-NHEt]GnRH(a potent agonist). Some animals were also treated concomitantly with FSH, PRL, GH and/or LH to prevent the hypophysectomy-induced loss of testicular LH receptor and steroidogenic capacity. At the end of 5 days of treatment, testicular LH/hCG receptor concentration was measured by a [125I]-hCG-binding assay and steroidogenic responsiveness was determinded by in vitro incubations. GnRH and the GnRH agonist reduced testicular LH receptor in control and FSH-treated hypophysectomized immature rats. As little as 0.5 microgram agonist/day induced a greater than 40% decrease in the LH receptor content, whereas GnRH was less potent, with 50 micrograms/day inducing about a 50% decrease. The inhibitory effect of GnRH was shown to be the result of decreases in the concentration of LH receptor rather than changes in the receptor affinity (Kd = 1.1 X 10(-10)M). GnRH did not interfere with the [125I]hCG receptor assay. Treatment with PRL, GH, and FSH, alone or in various combinations, increased the testicular LH receptor content. The stimulatory effect of these pituitary hormones was depressed by concomitant treatment with the GnRH agonist. Similar inhibitory effects of GnRH and the agonist on testicular LH receptor were demonstrated in adult hypophysectomized rats. In vitro studies demonstrated that treatment with the GnRH agonist in vivo inhibited both basal and hCG-stimulated androgen production in FSH-primed immature hypophysectomized rats. Associated with decreases in androgens (testosterone and androstenedione) and reduced androgens (dihydrotestosterone, androstanediol, and androsterone), there was marked suppression of 17 alpha-hydroxylated precursors and C-21 steroid intermediates in animals treated with the GnRH agonist, thus suggesting that the inhibitory effect of the GnRH agonist was associated with possible defects in 17 alpha-hydroxylase and side-chain cleavage enzymes. Likewise, treatment with the GnRH agonist inhibited in vitro testicular steroidogenic responses in adult hypopysectomized rats. These results demonstrate the extrapituitary inhibitory effect of GnRH on testicular LH receptor content and Leydig cell steroidogenesis in immature and adult hypophysectomized rats.