In vitro cell culture pO2 is significantly different from incubator pO2.

Continuous noninvasive monitoring of peri-cellular liquid phase pO2 in adherent cultures is described. For neurons and astrocytes, this approach demonstrates that there is a significant difference between predicted and observed liquid phase pO2. Particularly at low gas phase pO2s, cell metabolism shifts liquid phase pO2 significantly lower than would be predicted from the O2 gas/air equilibrium coefficient, indicating that the cellular oxygen uptake rate exceeds the oxygen diffusion rate. The results demonstrate the need for direct pO2 measurements at the peri-cellular level, and question the widely adopted current practice of relying on setting the incubator gas phase level as means of controlling pericellular oxygen tension, particularly in static culture systems that are oxygen mass transfer limited.

Mitochondrial dysfunction in mouse trisomy 16 brain.

Mitochondrial function in the brain of mouse trisomy 16, an animal model of Down syndrome with accelerated neuron death, was studied in isolated cortex mitochondria. Using an oxygen-sensitive Clarke electrode, a selective 16% decrease in respiration was detected with the Complex I substrates malate and glutamate but not with the Complex II substrate succinate. Western blotting revealed a 20% decrease in the 20 kDa subunit of Complex I in Ts16 brain cortex homogenates with no significant decrease in marker proteins for the other complexes of the electron transport chain. Although no differences in H(2)O(2) production or maximal calcium uptake were detected in the Ts16 mitochondria, there was an 18% decrease in pyruvate dehydrogenase levels, a change associated with oxidative stress in ischemia. These results are similar to those found in Parkinson's disease suggesting some neurodegenerative diseases may have mitochondrial pathology as a common step.

Organotypic slice cultures for analysis of proliferation, cell death, and migration in the embryonic neocortex.

Dynamic cellular interactions during neocortical neurogenesis are critical for proper cortical development, providing both trophic and tropic support. Although cell proliferation and programmed cell death have been characterized in dissociated primary cell cultures, many in vivo processes during cortical neurogenesis depend on cell-cell interactions and therefore on the three-dimensional environment of the proliferating neuroblasts and their progeny. Here we describe a murine organotypic neocortical slice preparation that retains major morphological and functional in vivo characteristics of the developing neocortex and is viable (exhibits very low levels of cell death) for up to three days. Moreover, this slice preparation is amenable to direct experimental manipulation of potential diffusible regulators of neurogenesis. Using a variety of biochemical and physiological methods including time-lapse and quantitative confocal microscopy, we demonstrate that this system can be used effectively to investigate cellular mechanisms important for brain growth and maturation, including neurogenesis, apoptosis, and neuronal migration.

Neuronal apoptosis in mouse trisomy 16: mediation by caspases.

Hippocampal neurons from the trisomy 16 (Ts16) mouse, a potential animal model of Down's syndrome (trisomy 21) and neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), die at an accelerated rate in vitro. Here, we present evidence that the accelerated neuronal death in Ts16 occurs by apoptosis, as has been reported for neurons in AD. First, the nuclei of dying Ts16 neurons are pyknotic and undergo DNA fragmentation, as revealed by terminal transferase-mediated dUTP nick end-labeling. Second, the accelerated death of Ts16 neurons is prevented by inhibitors of the caspase family of proteases, which are thought to act at a late, obligatory step in the apoptosis pathway. In the presence of maximally effective concentrations of caspase inhibitors, Ts16 neuron survival was indistinguishable from that of control neurons. These results suggest that overexpression of one or more genes on mouse chromosome 16 leads to caspase-mediated apoptosis in Ts16 neurons.

MAP5 expression in proliferating neuroblasts.

MAP5, a microtubule-associated protein present in immature neurons, was found to be expressed in the embryonic mouse telencephalic ventricular zone (VZ). Since the VZ contains proliferating neuroblasts, the source of most of the neurons of the cerebral cortex, this observation raised the possibility that MAP5 is expressed by proliferating neuronal progenitors. MAP5-positive mitotic cells were observed at the ventricular surface, a finding consistent with progenitors expressing MAP5 prior to their last division. This possibility was investigated using dissociated, cortical cells in vitro by measuring the expression of MAP5 and the neuroepithelial marker nestin, together with the incorporation of bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU), a thymidine analogue that labels the DNA of proliferating cells in the S-phase of the cell cycle. All of the proliferating cells expressed nestin. A population of MAP5-positive cells was also found to incorporate BrdU; some cells expressed MAP5 within 30 min of BrdU labeling. The results suggest that uncommitted neuroblasts express only nestin, with expression of MAP5 occurring near the time the cell commits to become a postmitotic neuron after the next cell division. Subsequently, cells expressing both MAP5 and nestin leave the cell cycle and exit the VZ, lose nestin, and differentiate into neurons. Since some cells expressed MAP5 during or shortly after S-phase but before mitosis, MAP5 may be the earliest marker to identify neuronal progenitors that will become post-mitotic neurons following their next mitosis.

Isoform-specific regulation of the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger in rat astrocytes and neurons by PKA.

The Na+/Ca2+ exchanger is a major transporter of Ca2+ in neurons and glial cells. The Na+/Ca2+ exchanger gene NCX1 expresses tissue-specific isoforms of the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger, and the isoforms have been examined here quantitatively using primary cultures of astrocytes and neurons. We present a PCR-based quantitative method, quantitative end-labeled reverse transcription-PCR (QERT-PCR), to determine the relative amounts of the NCX1 isoforms present in these cells. Six exons (A, B, C, D, E, and F) are alternatively spliced to produce the known NCX1 isoforms. Three exon B-containing isoforms (BDEF, BDF, and BD) are the predominant transcripts in primary rat cortical astrocytes and in C6 glioma cells. In contrast, exon A-containing isoforms (ADF and AD) are the predominant transcripts in primary rat hippocampal neurons. Functional differences between full-length constructs of NCX1 containing either the astrocyte isoform BD or the neuron isoform AD were examined in a Xenopus oocyte expression system. Although both isoforms function normally, the activity of the AD isoform can be increased 39% by activation of protein kinase A (PKA), whereas that of the BD isoform is not affected. We conclude that specific NCX1 isoforms are expressed in distinct patterns in astrocytes and neurons. Furthermore, the activity of a neuronal (but not glial) isoform of the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger can be altered by the activation of the PKA pathway.

Abnormal calcium homeostasis in astrocytes from the trisomy 16 mouse.

The regulation of intracellular Ca2+ was investigated in cultured astrocytes from the trisomy 16 (Ts16) mouse, an animal model for Down syndrome and Alzheimer's disease (AD). The cytoplasmic ionized Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]cyt) was determined using digital imaging of fura-2-loaded cells. The relative Ca2+ content of internal endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stores was estimated from the magnitude of the transient increase in [Ca2+]cyt induced by cyclopiazonic acid (CPA), an inhibitor of Ca2+ sequestration into ER stores. At rest, the average [Ca2+]cyt was 140 nM in euploid (normal) astrocytes, but over twice as high, 320 nM, in Ts16 cells. In the absence of extracellular Ca2+, CPA induced a transient increase in [Ca2+]cyt to over 1200 nM in Ts16 astrocytes as compared to only 500 nM in euploid cells, indicating an increased amount of Ca2+ in the Ts16 astrocyte ER. In contrast to euploid astrocytes, both resting [Ca2+]cyt and the amount of Ca2+ in the ER stores varied widely among individual Ts16 astrocytes. These results show that Ts16 produces a dysregulation of Ca2+ homeostasis leading to increased cytoplasmic and stored Ca2+. Since increases in [Ca2+]cyt have been implicated in the etiology of neurodegenerative diseases, including AD, this finding of abnormal Ca2+ homeostasis in a genetic model of human neurological disorders suggests that Ca2+ dysregulation may be a common feature underlying neurodegenerative processes.

Expression of glial antigens in mouse astrocytes: species differences and regulation in vitro.

Expression of developmentally regulated antigens was used to characterize glial cells in cultures from embryonic mouse cerebral cortex. Over 90% of the cells had a flat morphology, and about 50% of these flat cells also expressed the ganglioside GD3. Up to 40% of all the GD3 expressing cells also expressed A2B5 antigen. Flat cells expressing either glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), or GD3 or both were present at all times in vitro. These three populations of flat cells could not be further distinguished on the basis of NG2 or fibronectin expression, or with respect to their responses to the mitogens FGF-2, PDGF, or EGF. The glial cultures also contain a small number (approximately 5%) of process bearing cells with the morphological and immunocytochemical characteristics of oligodendrocyte precursors. The expression of GD3 by flat cells changed with time in culture as the fraction of flat cells expressing only GD3 declined and the fraction of cells expressing GFAP (with or without GD3) increased. The data are consistent with those flat cells expressing only GD3 being astrocyte precursors. Furthermore, between 1 and 3 weeks in vitro GD3/GFAP cells lose GD3 while retaining GFAP. Cells expressing only GFAP could be induced to express GD3 and A2B5 by treatment with FGF-2. The widespread and regulated expression of GD3 and A2B5 by murine glia is different from the restricted pattern of expression previously reported for these antigens in rat brain cell cultures. These results demonstrate that expression of GD3 and A2B5 by murine astrocytes depends on both culture age and extracellular signals and that these gangliosides are not markers for cell lineage in the mouse.

Modulation of two functionally distinct Ca2+ stores in astrocytes: role of the plasmalemmal Na/Ca exchanger.

Mechanisms that regulate the amount of releasable Ca2+ in intracellular stores of cultured mouse astrocytes were investigated using digital imaging of fura-2 loaded cells. At rest, the cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration, [Ca2+]cyt, was about 110 nM. In the absence of extracellular Ca2+, cyclopiazonic acid (CPA), an inhibitor of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca(2+)-ATPase, induced a transient, four-fold increase in [Ca2+]cyt due to the release of Ca2+ from inositol triphosphate (IP3) sensitive stores. Caffeine (CAF), which releases Ca2+ from Ca(2+)-sensitive stores, induced a two-fold increase in [Ca2+]cyt. The CPA- and CAF-sensitive stores could be released independently. Changes in the amplitudes of the Ca2+ transients were taken as a measure of changes in store content. Removal of extracellular Na+ or addition of ouabain, which inhibit Ca2+ extrusion and promote Ca2+ entry across the plasmalemma via the Na/Ca exchanger, caused minimal increases in resting [Ca2+]cyt but greatly potentiated both CPA- and CAF-induced Ca2+ transients. The amount of Ca2+ releasable from the IP3(CPA) sensitive store was directly proportional to cytosolic Na+ concentration (i.e., inversely proportional to the transmembrane Na+ electrochemical gradient). Under these reduced Na+ gradient conditions, little, if any, Ca2+ destined for the ER stores enters the cells through voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels. These results demonstrate that mouse astrocytes contain two distinct ER Ca2+ stores, the larger, IP3- (CPA-) sensitive, and the smaller, Ca(2+)- (CAF-) sensitive. The Ca2+ content of both ER stores can be regulated by the Na/Ca exchanger. Thus, the magnitude of cellular responses to signals that are mediated by Ca2+ release induced by the two second messengers, IP3 and Ca2+, can be modulated by factors that affect the net transport of Ca2+ across the plasmalemma.

Glutamate as a hippocampal neuron survival factor: an inherited defect in the trisomy 16 mouse.

The survival of cultured mouse hippocampal neurons was found to be greatly enhanced by micromolar concentrations of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate. Blockade of kainate/AMPA (alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid) glutamate receptors increased the rate of neuron death, suggesting that endogenous glutamate in the cultures promotes survival. Addition of glutamate (0.5-1 microM) further increased neuron survival, whereas glutamate in excess of 20 microM resulted in increased death. Thus, the survival vs. glutamate dose-response relation is bell-shaped with an optimal glutamate concentration near 1 microM. We found that hippocampal neurons from mice with the genetic defect trisomy 16 (Ts16) died 2-3 times faster than normal (euploid) neurons. Moreover, glutamate, at all concentrations tested, failed to increase survival of Ts16 neurons. In contrast, the neurotrophic polypeptide basic fibroblast growth factor did increase the survival of Ts16 and euploid neurons. Ts16 is a naturally occurring mouse genetic abnormality, the human analog of which (Down syndrome) leads to altered brain development and Alzheimer disease. These results demonstrate that the Ts16 genotype confers a defect in the glutamate-mediated survival response of hippocampal neurons and that this defect can contribute to their accelerated death.

O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase in tumors and cells of the oligodendrocyte lineage.

BACKGROUND: Oligodendrogliomas respond to nitrosourea-based chemotherapy and are induced in rats following transplacental exposure to ethylnitrosourea, observations suggesting that neoplastic and normal cells of the oligodendrocyte lineage are "sensitive" to nitrosoureas. Nitrosoureas alkylate DNA at O6-guanine with repair mediated by O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT). The cytotoxic and carcinogenic properties of the nitrosoureas appear related to MGMT activity. METHODS: To explore why oligodendrogliomas respond to chemotherapy, we measured MGMT activity in five chemosensitive human oligodendrogliomas and in rat oligodendrocyte lineage cells. We also measured MGMT activity in rat astrocytes and compared the cytotoxic effects of carmustine (BCNU) on oligodendrocyte lineage cells and astrocytes. RESULTS: Low levels of MGMT activity were found in five of five human oligodendrogliomas. Cultures of neonatal rat glia enriched for oligodendrocyte lineage cells also had low levels of MGMT activity, approximately one-third that found in astrocytes (p < 0.02), and oligodendrocyte lineage cells were more sensitive to BCNU than astrocytes. CONCLUSIONS: Low MGMT activity may contribute to the chemosensitivity of some human oligodendrogliomas and rat oligodendrocyte lineage cells also have low levels. If drug resistance mechanisms in tumors reflect the biochemical properties of their cells of origin, then normal glia may serve as a laboratory substitute for human glioma.

The extent of human cytomegalovirus replication in primary neurons is dependent on host cell differentiation.

To study fetal brain infection with human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), an in vitro model was established using the human primary nontransformed neuronal cell line HCN-1A. On exposure to a mixture of factors promoting differentiation, HCN-1A cells differentiate into mature neurons. Both undifferentiated and differentiated neurons were permissive to HCMV replication as assessed by immunohistochemistry and in situ DNA hybridization. Infectious center assays revealed that the ratio of virus-infected differentiated cells to undifferentiated cells dropped from 11:1 to 2:1 7-21 days after infection. However, release of infectious progeny from the differentiated HCN-1A cells was greater by 100- to 1000-fold. Cytopathic effect appeared earlier and was more pronounced in differentiated cells. These results suggest that differentiation of HCN-1A cells dramatically affects the rate and amount of virus production from these cells. This model should be useful in the study of congenital HCMV disease and virus-host cell interaction.

Neural regulation of acetylcholine receptors in rat neonatal muscle.

1. The neuronal regulation of the developmental decline in skeletal muscle acetylcholine (ACh) receptors was studied by comparing the effects of sciatic nerve section or of neuromuscular blockade with botulinum toxin (BoTX) on this decline in neonatal and adult rats, using 125I-alpha-bungarotoxin (125I-BTX) as a ligand for the receptor alpha-subunit. 2. The decline in 125I-BTX binding site concentration in neonatal rat triceps surae muscle homogenates towards low, adult levels followed a simple exponential with a time constant of 8 days. This decline occurred while the muscle is still rapidly growing, before the postnatal increase in numbers of sodium channels. It also preceded the decline in muscle ACh receptor alpha-subunit mRNA, reported in other studies, suggesting that subunit levels are not regulated only by mRNA availability. 3. Muscle denervation in the first two weeks of life prevented this developmental decline. Denervation increased the concentration of 125I-BTX binding sites but the magnitude of this increase became progressively smaller as the muscle matured, showing that removal of innervation during adult life does not revert the muscle, in toto, to its pre-innervation state. 4. Blockade of neuromuscular activity with BoTX increased 125I-BTX binding sites to a lesser extent than muscle denervation during neonatal life. This lesser effect of BoTX blockade contrasts with the equal effects of BoTX blockade and denervation in the adult.

Expression of a marrow stroma and thymus-associated antigen (ST3) in the rat brain: comparison with Thy-1.

Cells of the immunohemopoietic and nervous systems express certain molecules that generally are not found in other tissues. One example is the 'ST3' antigen, which is present on the major population of fibroblastoid cells grown from rat bone marrow, but is not detected on adherent cells from most peripheral organs (e.g. lung). An immunohistological survey revealed ST3 also in the thymic cortex, the glomerular mesangial area, and the brain. Because this pattern of distribution is similar to that described for Thy-1, we compared the localization of the two antigens in the adult rat brain and found that there were areas where it was congruent and others where it was distinct. Staining for ST3 was absent from the white matter, but was especially notable in discrete layers of the frontal, orbital, parietal, and cingulate cortices, the substantia nigra, the inferior olivary nuclei, and the deep molecular layer of the cerebellum, as well as other scattered regions in the gray matter. This is in contrast to Thy-1, which stained more diffusely throughout the gray zones. In further experiments using primary brain cell cultures, ST3 was demonstrated on neurons, but not on oligodendrocytes or astrocytes. Similarly, it was found on the surface of cells of the PC12 neuronal line, but not on the C6 astrocytoma. This restricted distribution on a subpopulation of neurons raises the possibility that the ST3 epitope might be part of a cell interaction molecule of the marrow stroma, thymus, and brain.

Phosphorylation of myelin-associated glycoprotein in cultured oligodendrocytes.

The myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG) in primary cultures of oligodendrocytes is subject to phosphorylation in the absence of neurons. The positive response of this phosphorylation to vanadate suggests that one of the modified sites in MAG is phosphotyrosine. We found that phosphorylation was enhanced by brief treatment of the cells with insulin-like growth factor I and active phorbol ester, agents that stimulate oligodendrocyte differentiation. Preliminary observations suggest that phosphorylation enhances the association of MAG with the cytoskeleton.

Comparison of the effects of botulinum toxin in adult and neonatal rats: neuromuscular blockade and toxicity.

A single dose of botulinum toxin (BoTX) was injected subcutaneously to induce neuromuscular blockade in the triceps surae muscles of the hindlimbs of neonatal and adult rats. The efficacy of the toxin in producing complete neuromuscular blockade of the lower limb muscles, assessed by blockade of (a) postural and flexor reflexes and (b) muscle contraction in response to nerve stimulation, was dose dependent at all ages over a BoTX dose range of 10-60 ng/kg. However, BoTX was dramatically more toxic in adult animals resulting in a decline in body weight and lethal consequences in 25% of adult animals 1 week after administration of BoTX doses as low as 40 ng/kg. In contrast, neonatal animals, given the same dosage, continued to grow and no mortalities were observed. The differences in toxicity of BoTX in adult and neonatal rats are readily accounted for by the short duration of effect in the younger animals, which, in turn, is probably the result of more rapid generation of new and functional nerve terminals.

Radioligand binding to muscle homogenates to quantify receptor and ion channel numbers.

Quantitation of the number of receptor or ion channel proteins in muscle that may be changed as a result of disease, development, or experimental manipulation can be achieved by radioligand binding assays. The problem of apparent specific binding to filters, which severely distorts these assays, is described. Results show that when techniques are applied to minimize both high nonspecific binding and spurious specific binding to filters, equilibrium and nonequilibrium binding assays can be effectively used to measure binding site densities in muscle homogenates. As no sites are lost during homogenate preparation, changes in binding site density that are not apparent when normalized per mg protein are revealed by normalizing the number of sites either per muscle or by muscle fiber diameter. Thus, the resolution of problems inherent in homogenate binding allows the use of these preparations to compare the plasticity and control of ion channels and receptors under a wide variety of experimental conditions.

Neural regulation of [3H]saxitoxin binding site numbers in rat neonatal muscle.

1. Neural regulation of the density of sodium (Na+) channels in rat muscle was studied by measuring specific binding of tritiated saxitoxin ([3H]STX) to muscles from rat hindlimbs during normal development and in rats in which neuromuscular function was interrupted by sciatic nerve section or neuromuscular blockade with botulinum toxin (BoTX). 2. The normal developmental increase in [3H]STX binding site numbers followed a simple exponential with a time constant of 12 days. The most rapid incorporation of channels coincided with the onset of accelerated muscle growth and increased neuromuscular activity at 2 weeks of age. 3. Elimination of neuromuscular activity retarded muscle growth and inhibited the normal incorporation of Na+ channels into neonatal muscle. Muscles denervation was more effective than BoTX paralysis: denervation at 2 weeks of age prevented the normal 3-fold increase in the binding site density between 2 and 3 weeks of age while age-matched BoTX-treated muscles incorporated an average of 66% of the normal Na+ channel incorporation. 4. Denervation and BoTX treatment were equally effective in reducing the numbers of [3H]STX binding sites in adult muscle. A reduction of 30% in binding sites brought the numbers to levels which corresponded with levels normally seen in muscles at 3 weeks of neonatal development. 5. It was concluded that the neural influence on incorporation of Na+ channels into membranes of neonatal muscle is, at least in part, mediated by neuromuscular activity.