A strategy for the controllable generation of organic superbases from benchtop-stable salts.

Organic superbases are a distinct class of strong base that enable numerous modern reaction applications. Despite their great synthetic potential, widespread use and study of superbases are limited by their air sensitivity and difficult preparation. To address this, we report air-stable carboxylate salts of BTPP and P2-t-Bu phosphazene superbases that, when added to solution with an epoxide, spontaneously generate freebase. These systems function as effective precatalysts and stoichiometric prereagents for superbase-promoted addition, substitution and polymerization reactions. In addition to improving the synthesis, shelf stability, handling and recycling of phosphazenes, this approach enables precise regulation of the rate of base generation in situ. The activation strategy effectively mimics manual slow addition techniques, allowing for control over a reaction's rate or induction period and improvement of reactions that require strong base but are also sensitive to its presence, such as Pd-catalyzed coupling reactions.

Direct C-H Hydroxylation of N-Heteroarenes and Benzenes via Base-Catalyzed Halogen Transfer.

Hydroxylated (hetero)arenes are valued in many industries as both key constituents of end products and diversifiable synthetic building blocks. Accordingly, the development of reactions that complement and address the limitations of existing methods for the introduction of aromatic hydroxyl groups is an important goal. To this end, we apply base-catalyzed halogen transfer (X-transfer) to enable the direct C-H hydroxylation of mildly acidic N-heteroarenes and benzenes. This protocol employs an alkoxide base to catalyze X-transfer from sacrificial 2-halothiophene oxidants to aryl substrates, forming SNAr-active intermediates that undergo nucleophilic hydroxylation. Key to this process is the use of 2-phenylethanol as an inexpensive hydroxide surrogate that, after aromatic substitution and rapid elimination, provides the hydroxylated arene and styrene byproduct. Use of simple 2-halothiophenes allows for C-H hydroxylation of 6-membered N-heteroarenes and 1,3-azole derivatives, while a rationally designed 2-halobenzothiophene oxidant extends the scope to electron-deficient benzene substrates. Mechanistic studies indicate that aromatic X-transfer is reversible, suggesting that the deprotonation, halogenation, and substitution steps operate in synergy, manifesting in unique selectivity trends that are not necessarily dependent on the most acidic aryl position. The utility of this method is further demonstrated through streamlined target molecule syntheses, examples of regioselectivity that contrast alternative C-H hydroxylation methods, and the scalable recycling of the thiophene oxidants.

Synthetic Advantages of Defluorinative C-F Bond Functionalization.

Much progress has been made in the development of methods to both create compounds that contain C-F bonds and to functionalize C-F bonds. As such, C-F bonds are becoming common and versatile synthetic functional handles. This review summarizes the advantages of defluorinative functionalization reactions for small molecule synthesis. The coverage is organized by the type of carbon framework the fluorine is attached to for mono- and polyfluorinated motifs. The main challenges, opportunities and advances of defluorinative functionalization are discussed for each class of organofluorine. Most of the text focuses on case studies that illustrate how defluorofunctionalization can improve routes to synthetic targets or how the properties of C-F bonds enable unique mechanisms and reactions. The broader goal is to showcase the opportunities for incorporating and exploiting C-F bonds in the design of synthetic routes, improvement of specific reactions and advent of new methods.

A base-catalyzed approach for the anti-Markovnikov hydration of styrene derivatives.

The base-catalyzed addition of 1-cyclopropylethanol to styrene derivatives with an acidic reaction workup enables anti-Markovnikov hydration. The use of either catalytic organic superbase or crown ether-ligated inorganic base permits hydration of a wide variety of styrene derivatives, including electron-deficient, ortho-substituted and heteroaryl variants. This protocol complements alternative routes to terminal alcohols that rely on stoichiometric reduction and oxidation processes. The utility of this method is demonstrated through multigram scale reactions and its use in a two-step hydration/cyclization process of ortho-halogenated styrenes to prepare 2,3-dihydrobenzofuran derivatives.

A Base-Promoted Reductive Coupling Platform for the Divergent Defluorofunctionalization of Trifluoromethylarenes.

We report a trifluoromethylarene reductive coupling method that dramatically expands the scope of difluorobenzylic substructures accessible via C-F bond functionalization. Catalytic quantities of a Lewis base, combined with a disilane reagent in formamide solvent, promotes the replacement of a single trifluoromethyl fluorine atom with a silylated hemiaminal functional group. The reaction proceeds through a difluorobenzyl silane intermediate that can also be isolated. Together, these defluorinated products are shown to provide rapid access to over 20 unique difluoroalkylarene scaffolds.

Mechanistic Studies Yield Improved Protocols for Base-Catalyzed Anti-Markovnikov Alcohol Addition Reactions.

The catalytic anti-Markovnikov addition of alcohols to simple alkenes is a longstanding synthetic challenge. We recently disclosed the use of organic superbase catalysis for the nucleophilic addition of alcohols to activated styrene derivatives. This article describes mechanistic studies on this reversible reaction, including thermodynamic and kinetic profiling as well as computational modeling. Our findings show the negative entropy of addition is counterbalanced by an enthalpy that is most favored in nonpolar solvents. However, a large negative alcohol rate order under these conditions indicates excess alcohol sequesters the active alkoxide ion pairs, slowing the reaction rate. These observations led to an unexpected solution to a thermodynamically challenging reaction: use of less alcohol enables faster addition, which in turn allows for lower reaction temperatures to counteract Le Chatelier's principle. Thus, our original method has been improved with new protocols that do not require excess alcohol stoichiometry, enable an expanded alkene substrate scope, and allow for the use of more practical catalyst systems. The generality of this insight for other challenging hydroetherification reactions is also demonstrated through new alkenol cyclization and oxa-Michael addition reactions.

Enantioenriched α-substituted glutamates/pyroglutamates via enantioselective cyclopropenimine-catalyzed Michael addition of amino ester imines.

A procedure for the enantioselective synthesis of α-substituted glutamates and pyroglutamates via a cyclopropenimine-catalyzed Michael addition of amino ester imines is described. Enantioselectivities of up to 94% have been achieved, and a variety of functional groups were found to be compatible. The impact of the catalyst structure and imine substitution is discussed. Compared to other methods, this protocol allows for a broader and more enantioselective access to pyroglutamate derivatives.

Nucleophilic C-H Etherification of Heteroarenes Enabled by Base-Catalyzed Halogen Transfer.

We report a general protocol for the direct C-H etherification of N-heteroarenes. Potassium tert-butoxide catalyzes halogen transfer from 2-halothiophenes to N-heteroarenes to form N-heteroaryl halide intermediates that undergo tandem base-promoted alcohol substitution. Thus, the simple inclusion of inexpensive 2-halothiophenes enables regioselective oxidative coupling of alcohols with 1,3-azoles, pyridines, diazines, and polyazines under basic reaction conditions.

Lewis Basic Salt-Promoted Organosilane Coupling Reactions with Aromatic Electrophiles.

Lewis basic salts promote benzyltrimethylsilane coupling with (hetero)aryl nitriles, sulfones, and chlorides as a new route to 1,1-diarylalkanes. This method combines the substrate modularity and selectivity characteristic of cross-coupling with the practicality of a base-promoted protocol. In addition, a Lewis base strategy enables a complementary scope to existing methods, employs stable and easily prepared organosilanes, and achieves selective arylation in the presence of acidic functional groups. The utility of this method is demonstrated by the synthesis of pharmaceutical analogues and its use in multicomponent reactions.

Organic Superbases in Recent Synthetic Methodology Research.

Organic superbases are a distinct and increasingly utilized class of Brønsted base that possess properties complementary to common inorganic bases. This Concept article discusses recent applications of commercial organic superbases in modern synthetic methodologies. Examples of the advantages of organic superbases in three areas are highlighted, including the discovery of new base-catalyzed reactions, the optimization of reactions that require stoichiometric Brønsted base, and in high-throughput experimentation technology.

Self-Assembly of Aminocyclopropenium Salts: En†Route to Deltic Ionic Liquid Crystals.

Aminocyclopropenium ions have raised much attention as organocatalysts and redox active polymers. However, the self-assembly of amphiphilic aminocyclopropenium ions remains challenging. The first deltic ionic liquid crystals based on aminocyclopropenium ions have been developed. Differential scanning calorimetry, polarizing optical microscopy and X-ray diffraction provided insight into the unique self-assembly and nanosegregation of these liquid crystals. While the combination of small headgroups with linear p-alkoxyphenyl units led to bilayer-type smectic mesophases, wedge-shaped units resulted in columnar mesophases. Upon increasing the size and polyphilicity of the aminocyclopropenium headgroup, a lamellar phase was formed.

Base-catalyzed aryl halide isomerization enables the 4-selective substitution of 3-bromopyridines.

The base-catalyzed isomerization of simple aryl halides is presented and utilized to achieve the 4-selective etherification, hydroxylation and amination of 3-bromopyridines. Mechanistic studies support isomerization of 3-bromopyridines to 4-bromopyridines proceeds via pyridyne intermediates and that 4-substitution selectivity is driven by a facile aromatic substitution reaction. Useful features of a tandem aryl halide isomerization/selective interception approach to aromatic functionalization are demonstrated. Example benefits include the use of readily available and stable 3-bromopyridines in place of less available and stable 4-halogenated congeners and the ability to converge mixtures of 3- and 5-bromopyridines to a single 4-substituted product.

Selective Defluoroallylation of Trifluoromethylarenes.

We report a fluoride-initiated coupling reaction between trifluoromethylarenes and allylsilanes to access allylated α,α-difluorobenzylic compounds. This method's utility is demonstrated through a 30 mmol scale reaction, a sequential allylation/derivatization protocol and multiple examples of site-selective trifluoromethylarene allylation. Initial mechanistic studies suggest a base-induced single electron transfer pathway is responsible for the high efficiency and selectivity of this novel C-F substitution process.

Catalytic α-Selective Deuteration of Styrene Derivatives.

We report an operationally simple protocol for the catalytic α-deuteration of styrenes. This process proceeds via the base-catalyzed reversible addition of methanol to styrenes in DMSO -d6 solvent. The concentration of methanol is shown to be critical for high yields and selectivities over multiple competing side reactions. The synthetic utility of α-deuterated styrenes for accessing deuterium-labeled chiral benzylic stereocenters is demonstrated.

CuH-Catalyzed Asymmetric Hydroamidation of Vinylarenes.

A CuH-catalyzed enantioselective hydroamidation reaction of vinylarenes has been developed using readily accessible 1,4,2-dioxazol-5-ones as electrophilic amidating reagents. This method provides a straightforward and efficient approach to synthesize chiral amides in good yields with high levels of enantiopurity under mild conditions. Moreover, this transformation tolerates substrates bearing a broad range of functional groups.

Superbase-Catalyzed anti-Markovnikov Alcohol Addition Reactions to Aryl Alkenes.

The organic superbase P4- t-Bu catalyzes the direct anti-Markovnikov addition of alcohols to aryl alkenes to access valuable ß-phenethyl ethers. A diverse substrate scope of aryl alkenes and alcohols is demonstrated, including heterocyclic systems and unprotected aminoalcohols. Mechanistic studies reveal that the reaction is under equilibrium control and extensive comparisons to common inorganic bases indicate that the broad reaction scope is uniquely enabled through the use of the organic superbase.

CuH-Catalyzed Asymmetric Reduction of α,ß-Unsaturated Carboxylic Acids to ß-Chiral Aldehydes.

The copper hydride (CuH)-catalyzed enantioselective reduction of α,ß-unsaturated carboxylic acids to saturated aldehydes is reported. This protocol provides a new method to access a variety of ß-chiral aldehydes in good yields, with high levels of enantioselectivity and broad functional group tolerance. A reaction pathway involving a ketene intermediate is proposed based on preliminary mechanistic studies and density functional theory calculations.

Enantioselective CuH-Catalyzed Hydroacylation Employing Unsaturated Carboxylic Acids as Aldehyde Surrogates.

The direct asymmetric copper hydride (CuH)-catalyzed coupling of α,ß-unsaturated carboxylic acids to aryl alkenes to access chiral α-aryl dialkyl ketones is reported. A variety of substrate substitution patterns, sensitive functional groups, and heterocycles are tolerated in this reaction, which significantly expands the range of accessible products compared with existing hydroacylation methodology. Although mechanistic studies are ongoing, we propose that CuH-catalyzed silylation of unsaturated acids occurs to access a uniquely effective acyl electrophilic coupling partner.

Asymmetric Copper Hydride-Catalyzed Markovnikov Hydrosilylation of Vinylarenes and Vinyl Heterocycles.

We report a highly enantioselective CuH-catalyzed Markovnikov hydrosilylation of vinylarenes and vinyl heterocycles. This method has a broad scope and enables both the synthesis of isolable silanes and the conversion of crude products to chiral alcohols. Density functional theory calculations support a mechanism proceeding by hydrocupration followed by σ-bond metathesis with a hydrosilane.

Clickable Poly(ionic liquids): A Materials Platform for Transfection.

The potential applications of cationic poly(ionic liquids) range from medicine to energy storage, and the development of efficient synthetic strategies to target innovative cationic building blocks is an important goal. A post-polymerization click reaction is reported that provides facile access to trisaminocyclopropenium (TAC) ion-functionalized macromolecules of various architectures, which are the first class of polyelectrolytes that bear a formal charge on carbon. Quantitative conversions of polymers comprising pendant or main-chain secondary amines were observed for an array of TAC derivatives in three hours using near equimolar quantities of cyclopropenium chlorides. The resulting TAC polymers are biocompatible and efficient transfection agents. This robust, efficient, and orthogonal click reaction of an ionic liquid, which we term ClickabIL, allows straightforward screening of polymeric TAC derivatives. This platform provides a modular route to synthesize and study various properties of novel TAC-based polymers.