IQ After Pediatric Concussion.

OBJECTIVES: This study investigated IQ scores in pediatric concussion (ie, mild traumatic brain injury) versus orthopedic injury. METHODS: Children (N = 866; aged 8-16.99 years) were recruited for 2 prospective cohort studies from emergency departments at children's hospitals (2 sites in the United States and 5 in Canada) ≤48 hours after sustaining a concussion or orthopedic injury. They completed IQ and performance validity testing postacutely (3-18 days postinjury; United States) or 3 months postinjury (Canada). Group differences in IQ scores were examined using 3 complementary statistical approaches (linear modeling, Bayesian, and multigroup factor analysis) in children performing above cutoffs on validity testing. RESULTS: Linear models showed small group differences in full-scale IQ (d [95% confidence interval] = 0.13 [0.00-0.26]) and matrix reasoning (0.16 [0.03-0.30]), but not in vocabulary scores. IQ scores were not related to previous concussion, acute clinical features, injury mechanism, a validated clinical risk score, pre- or postinjury symptom ratings, litigation, or symptomatic status at 1 month postinjury. Bayesian models provided moderate to very strong evidence against group differences in IQ scores (Bayes factor 0.02-0.23). Multigroup factor analysis further demonstrated strict measurement invariance, indicating group equivalence in factor structure of the IQ test and latent variable means. CONCLUSIONS: Across multisite, prospective study cohorts, 3 complementary statistical models provided no evidence of clinically meaningful differences in IQ scores after pediatric concussion. Instead, overall results provided strong evidence against reduced intelligence in the first few weeks to months after pediatric concussion.

Longitudinal trajectories of posttraumatic headache after pediatric mild traumatic brain injury.

OBJECTIVE: This prospective, longitudinal cohort study examined the trajectory, classification, and features of posttraumatic headache after pediatric mild traumatic brain injury. METHODS: Children (N = 213; ages 8.00 to 16.99 years) were recruited from two pediatric emergency departments <24 hours of sustaining a mild traumatic brain injury or mild orthopedic injury. At 10 days, three months, and six months postinjury, parents completed a standardized questionnaire that was used to classify premorbid and posttraumatic headache as migraine, tension-type headache, or not otherwise classified. Multilevel mixed effects models were used to examine posttraumatic headache rate, severity, frequency, and duration in relation to group, time postinjury, and premorbid headache, controlling for age, sex, and site. RESULTS: PTH risk was greater after mild traumatic brain injury than mild orthopedic injury at 10 days (odds ratio = 197.41, p < .001) and three months postinjury (odds ratio = 3.50, p = .030), especially in children without premorbid headache. Posttraumatic headache was more frequent after mild traumatic brain injury than mild orthopedic injury, ß (95% confidence interval) = 0.80 (0.05, 1.55). Groups did not differ in other examined headache features and classification any time postinjury. CONCLUSIONS: Posttraumatic headache risk increases after mild traumatic brain injury relative to mild orthopedic injury for approximately three months postinjury, but is not clearly associated with a distinct phenotype.

Social determinants of participant recruitment and retention in a prospective cohort study of pediatric mild traumatic brain injury.

Background: Prior studies have shown poor recruitment and retention of minoritized groups in clinical trials. Objective: To examine several social determinants as predictors of consent to participate and retention as part of a prospective, longitudinal cohort study of children 8-16 with either mild traumatic brain injury (mild TBI) or orthopedic injury (OI). Methods: Children and families were recruited during acute visits to emergency departments (ED) in two large children's hospitals in the midwestern United States for a prospective, longitudinal cohort study of children 8-16 with either mild TBI or OI. Results: A total of 588 (mild TBI = 307; OI = 281) eligible children were approached in the ED and 315 (mild TBI = 195; OI = 120) were consented. Children who consented did not differ significantly from those who did not consent in sex or age. Consent rates were higher among Black (60.9%) and multi-racial (76.3%) children than white (45.3%) children. Among the 315 children who consented, 217 returned for a post-acute assessment (mild TBI = 143; OI = 74), a retention rate of 68.9%. Participants who were multi-racial (96.6%) or white (79.8%) were more likely to return for the post-acute visit than those who were Black (54.3%). Conclusions: Racial differences exist in both recruitment and retention of participants in a prospective, longitudinal cohort of children with mild TBI or OI. Further work is needed to understand these differences to ensure equitable participation of minoritized groups in brain injury research.

Cognitive Outcomes in Children with Mild Traumatic Brain Injury: An Examination Using the National Institutes of Health Toolbox Cognition Battery.

This study is the first to examine cognitive outcomes after pediatric mild TBI using the National Institutes of Health Toolbox Cognition Battery (NIHTB-CB), a computerized cognitive test battery. The NIHTB-CB includes two complex measures of attention and executive function that allow differentiation of accuracy and response speed. We compared performance on the NIHTB-CB among children 8-16 years of age with mild TBI (n = 143) versus children with orthopedic injuries (OIs; n = 74) recruited in emergency departments and followed for 6 months post-injury. Mixed-model analyses showed that the mild TBI group showed significantly lower Fluid Cognition composite scores than the OI group at 10 days (group intercept, p = 0.018); the magnitude of group differences declined modestly over time (group × time interaction, p = 0.055). Effect sizes were d = 0.34 at 10 days post-injury, d = 0.27 at 3 months, and d = 0.10 at 6 months. No significant effects of group or time were found for the Crystallized Cognition composite. Analyses of Fluid Cognition subtests indicated that children with mild TBI displayed deficits for as long as 3 months on measures of attention and executive function (e.g., cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control), but not on measures of explicit memory, working memory, or processing speed. The poorer performance of the mild TBI group on measures of attention and executive function was attributable largely to slowed reaction time, not decreased accuracy. The findings suggest that children with mild TBI demonstrate persistent deficits in fluid cognition that are most apparent on tasks that combine demands for both speed and executive function.

Post-Acute Cortical Thickness in Children with Mild Traumatic Brain Injury versus Orthopedic Injury.

Studies of brain morphometry may illuminate the effects of pediatric mild traumatic brain injury (TBI; e.g., concussion). However, no published studies have examined cortical thickness in the early injury phases of pediatric mild TBI using an appropriate comparison group. The current study used an automated approach (i.e., FreeSurfer) to determine whether cortical thickness differed in children following a mild TBI or a mild orthopedic injury (OI), and to examine whether post-acute cortical thickness predicted post-acute and chronic post-concussive symptoms (PCS). Children ages 8.00-16.99 years with mild TBI (n = 136) or OI (n = 70) were recruited at emergency department visits to two children's hospitals, during which parents rated children's pre-injury symptoms retrospectively. Children completed a post-acute (3-24 days post-injury) assessment, which included a 3 Tesla MRI, and 3- and 6-month post-injury assessments. Parents and children rated PCS at each assessment. Cortical thickness was estimated using FreeSurfer. Linear mixed effects and multi-variable negative binomial regression models were used to test study aims, with false discovery rate (FDR) correction for multiple comparisons. Groups differed significantly on left parietal cortical thickness (TBI > OI) after FDR correction. Cortical thickness also varied by brain subregion and age, but not sex. Groups differed significantly on PCS post-acutely (TBI > OI), but not at 3 or 6 months. Right frontal thickness was positively related to post-acute PCS in both groups. Right cingulum thickness predicted chronic PCS in the OI group only. Results highlight the complexity of predicting outcomes of pediatric mild TBI from post-acute neuroimaging biomarkers.

Post-acute white matter microstructure predicts post-acute and chronic post-concussive symptom severity following mild traumatic brain injury in children.

INTRODUCTION: Mild traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a global public health concern that affects millions of children annually. Mild TBI tends to result in subtle and diffuse alterations in brain tissue, which challenges accurate clinical detection and prognostication. Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) holds promise as a diagnostic and prognostic tool, but little research has examined DTI in post-acute mild TBI. The current study compared post-acute white matter microstructure in children with mild TBI versus those with mild orthopedic injury (OI), and examined whether post-acute DTI metrics can predict post-acute and chronic post-concussive symptoms (PCS). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Children aged 8-16.99 years with mild TBI (n = 132) or OI (n = 69) were recruited at emergency department visits to two children's hospitals, during which parents rated children's pre-injury symptoms retrospectively. Children completed a post-acute (<2 weeks post-injury) assessment, which included a 3T MRI, and 3- and 6-month post-injury assessments. Parents and children rated PCS at each assessment. Mean diffusivity (MD) and fractional anisotropy (FA) were derived from diffusion-weighted MRI using Automatic Fiber Quantification software. Multiple multivariable linear and negative binomial regression models were used to test study aims, with False Discovery Rate (FDR) correction for multiple comparisons. RESULTS: No significant group differences were found in any of the 20 white matter tracts after FDR correction. DTI metrics varied by age and sex, and site was a significant covariate. No interactions involving group, age, and sex were significant. DTI metrics in several tracts robustly predicted PCS ratings at 3- and 6-months post-injury, but only corpus callosum genu MD was significantly associated with post-acute PCS after FDR correction. Significant group by DTI metric interactions on chronic PCS ratings indicated that left cingulum hippocampus and thalamic radiation MD was positively associated with 3-month PCS in the OI group, but not in the mild TBI group. CONCLUSIONS: Post-acute white matter microstructure did not differ for children with mild TBI versus OI after correcting for multiple comparisons, but was predictive of post-acute and chronic PCS in both injury groups. These findings support the potential prognostic utility of this advanced DTI technique.

Radiologic common data elements rates in pediatric mild traumatic brain injury.

OBJECTIVE: The nosology for classifying structural MRI findings following pediatric mild traumatic brain injury (pmTBI) remains actively debated. Radiologic common data elements (rCDE) were developed to standardize reporting in research settings. However, some rCDE are more specific to trauma (probable rCDE). Other more recently proposed rCDE have multiple etiologies (possible rCDE), and may therefore be more common in all children. Independent cohorts of patients with pmTBI and controls were therefore recruited from multiple sites (New Mexico and Ohio) to test the dual hypothesis of a higher incidence of probable rCDE (pmTBI > controls) vs similar rates of possible rCDE on structural MRI. METHODS: Patients with subacute pmTBI (n = 287), matched healthy controls (HC; n = 106), and orthopedically injured (OI; n = 71) patients underwent imaging approximately 1 week postinjury and were followed for 3-4 months. RESULTS: Probable rCDE were specific to pmTBI, occurring in 4%-5% of each sample, rates consistent with previous large-scale CT studies. In contrast, prevalence rates for incidental findings and possible rCDE were similar across groups (pmTBI vs OI vs HC). The prevalence of possible rCDE was also the only finding that varied as a function of site. Possible rCDE and incidental findings were not associated with postconcussive symptomatology or quality of life 3-4 months postinjury. CONCLUSION: Collectively, current findings question the trauma-related specificity of certain rCDE, as well how these rCDE are radiologically interpreted. Refinement of rCDE in the context of pmTBI may be warranted, especially as diagnostic schema are evolving to stratify patients with structural MRI abnormalities as having a moderate injury.

Age- and sex-related effects in children with mild traumatic brain injury on diffusion magnetic resonance imaging properties: A comparison of voxelwise and tractography methods.

Although there are several techniques to analyze diffusion-weighted imaging, any technique must be sufficiently sensitive to detect clinical abnormalities. This is especially critical in disorders like mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI), where pathology is likely to be subtle. mTBI represents a major public health concern, especially for youth under 15 years of age. However, the developmental period from birth to 18 years is also a time of tremendous brain changes. Therefore, it is important to establish the degree of age- and sex-related differences. Participants were children aged 8-15 years with mTBI or mild orthopedic injuries. Imaging was obtained within 10 days of injury. We performed tract-based spatial statistics (TBSS), deterministic tractography using Automated Fiber Quantification (AFQ), and probabilistic tractography using TRACULA (TRActs Constrained by UnderLying Anatomy) to evaluate whether any method provided improved sensitivity at identifying group, developmental, and/or sex-related differences. Although there were no group differences from any of the three analyses, many of the tracts, but not all, revealed increases of fractional anisotropy and decreases of axial, radial, and mean diffusivity with age. TBSS analyses resulted in age-related changes across all white matter tracts. AFQ and TRACULA revealed age-related changes within the corpus callosum, cingulum cingulate, corticospinal tract, inferior and superior longitudinal fasciculus, and uncinate fasciculus. The results are in many ways consistent across all three methods. However, results from the tractography methods provided improved sensitivity and better tract-specific results for identifying developmental and sex-related differences within the brain.

Synchronized navigation of current and prior studies using image registration improves radiologist's efficiency.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to investigate how the use of multi-modal rigid image registration integrated within a standard picture archiving and communication system affects the efficiency of a radiologist while performing routine interpretations of cases including prior examinations. METHODS: Six radiologists were recruited to read a set of cases (either 16 neuroradiology or 14 musculoskeletal cases) during two crossover reading sessions. Each radiologist read each case twice, one time with synchronized navigation, which enables spatial synchronization across examinations from different study dates, and one time without. Efficiency was evaluated based upon time to read a case and amount of scrolling while browsing a case using Wilcoxon signed rank test. RESULTS: Significant improvements in efficiency were found considering either all radiologists simultaneously, the two sections separately and the majority of individual radiologists for time to read and for amount of scrolling. The relative improvement for each individual radiologist ranged from 4 to 32% for time to read and from 14 to 38% for amount of scrolling. CONCLUSION: Image registration providing synchronized navigation across examinations from different study dates provides a tool that enables radiologists to work more efficiently while reading cases with one or more prior examinations.

Rhombencephalosynapsis: embryopathology and management strategies of associated neurosurgical conditions with a review of the literature.

OBJECT: Rhombencephalosynapsis (RS) is a rare congenital posterior fossa malformation characterized by dorsal fusion of the cerebellar hemispheres, hypogenesis or agenesis of the vermis, and fusion of the dentate nuclei and superior cerebellar peduncles. The objective of this institutional study is to review the clinical conditions associated with RS and analyze the varied biological profile of this unique condition. METHODS: The study data were collected retrospectively from the medical records of patients at Rainbow Babies and Children's Hospital. After required institutional review board approval, the authors obtained information regarding the cases of RS reviewed by the Departments of Radiology, Genetics, and/or Pediatric Neurology. Medical charts were systematically reviewed, and 9 patients were analyzed in detail. RESULTS: The authors describe 6 cases of RS and 3 cases of partial RS. This case series demonstrates an association between RS and symptomatic hydrocephalus (7 of 9 patients) and RS and Chiari malformation (5 of 9 patients). Patients with symptomatic hydrocephalus underwent endoscopic third ventriculostomy or ventriculoperitoneal shunt insertion. One of the patients with an associated Chiari malformation underwent foramen magnum decompression. CONCLUSIONS: The authors present a large case series of RS. Patients with RS often had hydrocephalus and/or a Chiari Type I or II hindbrain malformation. Neuroimaging findings of RS are presented along with hypotheses to explain the embryopathology of this unusual condition.

Pediatric epilepsy evaluations from the prenatal perspective.

Prenatal contributions to childhood epilepsy include malformations and acquired injuries, which can occur from conception and throughout gestation. Five case histories from the Pediatric Epilepsy Service are discussed that exemplify maternal, fetal, and placental conditions that contribute to childhood epilepsy. Two full-term neonates presented with neonatal seizures, with or without accompanying encephalopathy. Placental pathology suggested antepartum maternal-placental diseases that caused or contributed to their brain disorders. Two children presented as preterm infants with systemic organ system diseases that also implicated brain injury. One child had a complicated maternal history with both genetic and acquired illnesses. Two children required epilepsy surgery, with improved seizure control despite persistent neurocognitive and neurobehavioral deficits related to diffuse encephalopathies. Dual pathology should include prenatal contributions to childhood epilepsy on both a genetic and acquired basis. Epileptologists should consider an ontogenetic approach to study the epileptic condition from a fetal neurology perspective.

High-resolution MRI enhances identification of lesions amenable to surgical therapy in children with intractable epilepsy.

PURPOSE: Many children with refractory epilepsy can achieve better seizure control with surgical therapy. An abnormality on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), along with corroborating localization by other modalities, markedly increases chances of successful surgical outcome. We studied the impact of high-resolution MRI on the surgical outcome of intractable epilepsy. METHODS: High-resolution MRI using four-coil phased surface array was obtained as part of the comprehensive presurgical protocol for children with focal onset intractable seizures evaluated by our epilepsy center during the first half of 2002. RESULTS: Thirteen consecutive children, ages 5 to 18 years, entered this prospective study. For four patients with a lesion on a recent MRI examination with a standard head coil, management did not change with high-resolution MRI. Standard MRI in the other nine patients did not identify a lesion. However, high-resolution MRI with the phased-array surface coil found previously undiagnosed focal abnormalities in five of nine patients. These abnormalities included hippocampal dysplasia, hippocampal atrophy, and dual pathology with frontal cortical dysplasia. In four of nine patients, no identifiable lesion was identified on the high-resolution MRI. All patients underwent invasive monitoring. In three of five patients, newly diagnosed lesions correlated with EEG abnormalities, and resection was performed. CONCLUSIONS: In our center, high-resolution MRI identified lesions not detected by standard MRI in more than half the children (56%). Technical advances such as four-coil phased surface array MRI can help identify and better delineate lesions, improving the diagnosis of patients who are candidates for surgical treatment of refractory epilepsy.

Pediatric neurology participation in a fetal diagnostic service.

Fetal neurologic consultations were provided to 166 maternal-fetal pairs over a 5-year period. Consultations were initiated during the second trimester in 46% (74/166) of pairs. Fifty-percent (83/166) of these consultations involved brain malformations, of which 55% (46/83) were also associated with other organ abnormalities. Brain malformations principally consisted of encephalocele, dorsal neural tube defects, holoprosencephaly, schizencephaly, cerebellar dysgenesis, and ventriculomegaly. Non-central nervous system organ system anomalies were observed in another 50% (83/166), in decreasing order of occurrence-cardiac, renal, gastrointestinal, pulmonary, in utero growth restriction, and hydrops fetalis. Outcome data on 128 children included survival at delivery for 86/128 or 67.2%, termination in 16/128 (12.5%), stillborn 6/128 (4.7%), and postnatal deaths in 20/128 (15.6%). Maternal medical histories were abnormal for 65% of women. Placental pathology was abnormal in 80% (72/102) of available specimens, consisting of both chronic and acute lesions. Postnatal diagnoses were obtained in 128 neonates; 64% (82/128) remained the same diagnosis, 28.1% (36/128) had a worse or improved diagnosis, and 10/128 (7.8%) were normal. Pediatric neurologists can provide useful fetal consultations early during gestation, and must consider multiple organ diagnoses and maternal-placental diseases. Postnatal diagnoses may be different from the fetal diagnoses which will influence continuity of care for the child at older ages.

Biotinidase deficiency: clinical and MRI findings consistent with myelopathy.

Spastic paraparesis has been described in children with biotinidase deficiency and onset in later childhood and early adolescence. A 3-year-old male with biotinidase deficiency presented with rash, ataxia, and paraparesis and magnetic resonance imaging findings of myelopathy. Improvement occurred after treatment with biotin. Myelopathy should be added to the features that may be found on clinical examination and neuroimaging of children with biotinidase deficiency, regardless of age of presentation.

Mesial temporal sclerosis in acute childhood leukemias.

PURPOSE: Although seizures are relatively common in acute childhood leukemias, evolution into epilepsy is rare. METHODS: We describe three patients with acute leukemias who received chemotherapy. One patient also received cranial irradiation. RESULTS: All three developed recurrent complex partial seizures after initiation of chemotherapy. Initial neuroimaging performed in two patients was normal. Subsequent neuroimaging in all three revealed mesial temporal sclerosis. CONCLUSIONS: The association of mesial temporal sclerosis in acute childhood leukemias has not been previously described and may be secondary to antileukemic treatment and recurrent seizures.

Delayed onset of status epilepticus after transient asphyxia in an asymptomatic full-term neonate.

A full-term neonate presented with status epilepticus at 12 hours of age after a symptom-free interval following transient asphyxia at birth. Conventional neuroimaging failed to detect structural correlates to support recent injury. However, diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging studies revealed recent ischemic brain injury. Placental examination documented multiple subacute and chronic findings indicative of decreased maternal/fetal perfusion. These antepartum placental abnormalities may have been associated with this child's inability to withstand the stress of a prolonged second stage of labor, resulting in intrapartum asphyxia leading to brain injury. This child's clinical presentation highlights the delayed reperfusion phase after ischemia-induced brain injury.

Cerebral infarctions in the fetus and neonate: maternal-placental-fetal considerations.

Historical data, clinical examination findings, and laboratory information must be integrated along a variable timeline that includes antepartum, intrapartum, and postnatal time periods when cerebral infarction can occur, in the context of the neonates genetic endowment. Genetic susceptibility or prenatal acquired vulnerabilities regarding stroke syndromes may set in motion a cascade of molecular pathways that ultimately cause or exacerbate brain injury when the vulnerable child experiences adverse medical conditions. The clinician must consider maternal, placental, and fetal conditions on which a stroke syndrome may be superimposed, with or without additional brain injury from other pathogenic mechanisms. Evaluation of fetal and neonatal cerebral infarction requires knowledge of mechanisms of brain injury that cross medical disciplines and may involve consultation with maternal/fetal specialists, placental and pediatric pathologists, neonatologists, geneticists, and other pediatric subspecialties. Comprehensive evaluations of survivors of cerebral infarction are needed to better understand structural and functional plasticity of the developing brain after a cerebrovascular event in the fetal and neonatal periods.