Bystanders to Sexual Violence: Findings From a National Sample of Sexual and Gender Diverse Adolescents.

Mobilizing bystanders to prevent sexual violence is an increasingly popular prevention strategy. While research has identified characteristics related to opportunity and actions around helping, a more nuanced understanding of how helping behavior and its modifiable levers may differ for youth of various genders is needed. The current study examined bystander-helping behaviors in sexual violence situations in a national, social media-recruited sample of adolescents 14 to 16 years of age. Measures of opportunity and self-reported actions were included in an online survey along with items assessing attitudes related to violence and helping. Given that prevention programs may work differently for cisgender, transgender, and nonbinary young people, between-group differences in amount of opportunity and helping behaviors were examined. Further, we examined correlates of opportunities to help as well as helping behaviors within each group. Overall, few attitude and personal experience characteristics consistently predicted opportunities and behaviors across groups. Group differences that emerged, such as the association between attitudes supportive of rape and lower helping for cisgender but not trans or nonbinary youth, support attending to these group differences in both basic and intervention research to inform tailoring of prevention programs.

Social networks and violence victimization and perpetration among youth: A longitudinal analysis.

Interpersonal violence (IV) is a serious concern for adolescents in the United States that has devastating impacts for individuals and communities. Given the increased importance placed on friendships during adolescence, the purpose of the current study was to examine the extent to which IV experiences cluster within youths' friendship networks. Participants were students (N = 1303) in grades 7th to 10th who completed surveys at the beginning and end of an academic year. Results showed that friends' average perpetration (i.e., the percentage of the friends they nominated who perpetrated IV) was strongly associated with likelihood of individual perpetration at baseline but not at the follow-up. For victimization, friends' average report of victimization (i.e., the percentage of the friends they nominated who were victimized) was associated with higher likelihood reporting of victimization (at both baseline and follow-up). Although future research is needed to understand explanatory mechanisms underlying these findings, it is possible that the effectiveness of prevention initiatives may be enhanced by incorporating peer group information.

Quantifying College Students' Bystander Behavior to Prevent Sexual Assault and Intimate Partner Violence: Can We Make Improvements?

Sexual assault and intimate partner violence (IPV) are prevalent on college campuses, and bystander intervention programs are often employed as a method for preventing such violence. Unfortunately, there are concerns about current strategies for the measurement and quantification of bystander behavior. Accounting for the opportunity to engage in bystander behavior is theorized to be important, but it remains unclear if doing so improves the validity of the measurement of bystander behavior. The current study compares four methods of quantifying bystander behavior when information about the opportunity to help is also available. First-year undergraduate students (n = 714) from three universities participated. Participants completed the risky situations subscale of the Bystander Behavior Scale, using a modified response scale to measure both bystander behavior and opportunity for such behavior. Measures of criterion variables theorized to be linked with bystander behavior (efficacy to intervene, responsibility to intervene, and moral courage) were also completed. Four types of bystander behavior scores were calculated: breadth, missed opportunity, offset, and likelihood. Likelihood scores, which reflect the likelihood of engaging in bystander behavior when presented with the opportunity to help, correlated more strongly with the criterion variables than other scores. Likelihood scores demonstrated added value in quantifying bystander behavior over other scoring methods. Findings from the current study add to the knowledge of how best to measure and quantify bystander behavior. Such knowledge has significant implications for research on correlates of bystander behavior and evaluations of bystander intervention programs for sexual assault and IPV prevention.

Overlap Between Exposure to Suicidal Behavior and Indirect Interpersonal Violence: Evidence for a More Integrated Approach to Violence Research.

This study examines the overlap between indirect exposure to forms of interpersonal violence and suicidal behavior, and the impact of the co-occurrence of these exposures on indicators of depressed mood and substance use among adolescents. Participants were a national sample of 3,917 youth aged 14-15 years, recruited online between June 2018 and March 2020, including an oversample of sexual and gender minority youth. Eight in ten (81.3%) youth reported exposure to indirect interpersonal violence and/or suicidal behavior in their lifetimes: 39.5% reported only interpersonal violence exposure, 5.9% only suicidal behavior exposure, and 35.9% reported both. Youth who reported exposure to interpersonal violence were almost three times more likely (adjusted odds ratio [OR] = 2.78, p < .001) to also report suicidal behavior exposure. Compared with youth having no indirect violence exposure, those with only interpersonal violence exposure were 2.25 times more likely (p < .001), those with only exposure to suicidal behavior 2.93 times more likely (p < .001), and those with both were 5.63 times more likely to report recent depressed mood. The unadjusted odds of any substance use was significantly elevated for each type of indirect violence exposure, with the highest odds seen among youth with dual interpersonal violence and suicide exposure (OR = 4.87, p < .001). For both outcomes, significant findings remained but were attenuated after adjusting for demographic characteristics, non-victimization adversity exposure, and cumulative direct victimization. Findings suggest that the combination of exposure to interpersonal violence and suicidal behavior appears to be particularly impactful. Results highlight that assessment of trauma exposure among adolescents needs to be more comprehensive and include not only direct and indirect interpersonal violence, but also knowledge of other people's suicidal thoughts and behaviors.

A Latent Transition Model of the Effects of a Youth-Led Sexual Violence Prevention Initiative on Victimization and Perpetration Trajectories Over Time.

PURPOSE: Latent transition analysis was used to characterize transitions over time in profiles of victimization and perpetration of sexual and related forms of violence (i.e., bullying, dating violence, sexual harassment) over a 2.5-year period among middle and high school students. We also examined how profiles of violence varied as a function of participation in a youth-led sexual violence prevention initiative (Youth Voices in Prevention [Youth VIP]). METHODS: Participants were 2,528 youth (53.3% female, average age = 13.73 years) who completed a survey at five points (every six months) over three academic years (fall 2017-fall 2019). Participation in Youth VIP was tracked by researchers and took place from summer 2018 to fall 2019. RESULTS: Four classes (i.e., low violence class, victimization only class, sexual harassment class, mixed violence class) best captured patterns of victimization and perpetration experiences. The latent transition analysis showed that the least severe class had the highest stability, with the fewest students transitioning out of this class over time. Results also demonstrated that, overall, participation in at least one Youth VIP event, compared to not participating in any Youth VIP events, related to positive transitions over time to less severe classes. DISCUSSION: Violence experienced by youth is not homogenous, although classes of violence among youth are generally stable over a 2.5 period. Results also provide further evidence that Youth VIP is a promising approach to prevent sexual and related forms of violence and appears to promote transition into less severe classes of violence over time.

Social Network Influences on Adolescent E-cigarette Use.

Background: Determine if individual adolescent vaping is associated with the vaping behavior of their school-based friendships; whether that association stems from peer influence or peer selection; and whether it varies by age. Methods: Two wave longitudinal survey of 1,208 students in one Midwestern US school district. Students were asked if they ever vaped and to name their seven closest friends within the school district. A roster of all eligible students was pre-loaded into the survey to facilitate network data collection. Terms for network exposure, the proportion of vaping friends; and selection, the number of new friends who vape, were created. Logistic regression and Stochastic Actor Oriented Models were used to test both influence and selection effects. Results: A cross-sectional logistic regression model indicated that friend vaping was associated with individual vaping (AOR = 4.96, p < 0.01); and lagged logistic models indicated that increased friend vaping was associated with individual vaping initiation (AOR = 1.72, p < 0.05). Selecting new friends who vape was also associated with becoming a vaper (AOR = 1.25, p < 0.01). Both influence and selection were present for those less than 14 years old. Conclusions: This is the first study to use social network analysis to show that adolescents who vape or initiate vaping are more likely to do so if their friends vape, and/or they make new friends who vape. Prevention and cessation programs should address the role of friend influence and selection on e-cigarette use; particularly at younger ages.

Diffusion effects of a sexual violence prevention program leveraging youth-adult partnerships.

The purpose of the current study was to examine the diffusion effects of a youth-led sexual violence prevention program (i.e., Youth Voices in Prevention [Youth VIP]). Specifically, social network analysis was used to measure the extent to which Youth VIP changed behaviors for 1172 middle and high school youth who did not attend program events but were friends with Youth VIP participants and completed the first and final survey (approximately 2 years apart). Findings suggest that there was considerable interpersonal communication about Youth VIP among the students generated by program participation. Specifically, youth with friends who participated in Youth VIP were more likely to report hearing their friends talk about Youth VIP and reported talking to their friends about Youth VIP compared with those not connected to Youth VIP participants. However, there were no diffusion effects found for behavioral outcomes (i.e., bystander intervention behavior, violence victimization, and perpetration). Given the mixed findings, further research is needed to determine the extent to which youth-led sexual violence prevention initiatives lead to changes in broader community-wide changes in youths' behaviors.

Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic for youth with a history of exposure to self-directed violence.

OBJECTIVE: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic created a sudden shift in the social lives of youth with important negative impacts on mental health. The current article aims to understand how the pandemic may have differentially impacted the mental health of adolescents and young adults with recent (1 year or less) and past (> 1 year) exposure to self-directed violence (SDV). METHOD: Data were collected online from 990 youth and young adults, aged 13-23 years between November 27, 2020 and December 11, 2020. RESULTS: Participants who had recently been exposed to SDV reported being more impacted by the pandemic and had poorer mental health indicators. Participants with past SDV exposure who engaged in a high number of prosocial activities (e.g., talking with friends) were less likely to report depressive symptoms (ß = -.13, p = .01) than similarly engaged nonexposed participants; the same was true for recently exposed participants (ß = -.14, p = .02). CONCLUSIONS: Findings highlight that the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mental health of young people are compounded by exposure to mental health concerns of people in their network. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Rethinking Dating and SEXUAL Violence Prevention for Youth During the Pandemic: Examining Program Feasibility and Acceptability.

Sexual and dating violence (SDV) is a social and health but preventable public issue. Most evidence-based prevention programs have been evaluated using an in-person delivery mechanism. Project Dream, Own and Tell (DOT) is a 13- to 18-week SDV prevention program targeting youth from traditionally underserved communities in New York City that shifted from in-person to online delivery in response to social distancing requirements during the COVID-19 pandemic. The aim of the current study was to understand how youth perceive learning SDV prevention in an online environment (acceptability and feasibility of the online DOT program). A mixed methods triangulation design was used including responses to Ecological Momentary Assessments (n = 25), a brief post survey with Likert-scale items (n = 18), and semi-structured interviews with 12 participants. The sample comprised Latinx/Hispanic, Asian American, Arab American, and African American youth between the ages of 15 and 21 from urban communities. Youth indicated both strengths and challenges of the online format. Strengths included ease of fitting the program into their schedules, avoiding long commutes, and the potential to create a safe online space for participants to engage in sexual violence prevention discussions and thus, feel less exposed. Challenges included internet connectivity issues, difficulties in building trustworthy relationships with other participants when not sharing the same physical space, some characteristics of the program's activities, and the lack of adequate space from which to attend the program (i.e., shared spaces). Findings suggest that synchronous online prevention program delivery is a feasible and acceptable strategy for engaging adolescents in relationship violence prevention.

Mixed Methods Community-Engaged Evaluation: Integrating Interventionist and Action Research Frameworks to Understand a Community-Building Violence Prevention Program.

While mixed methods research can enhance studies of intervention outcomes and projects where research itself transforms communities through participatory approaches, methodologists need explicit examples. As the field of interpersonal violence prevention increasingly embraces community-level prevention strategies, it may benefit from research methods that mirror community-building prevention processes. A multiphase mixed methods study with sequential and convergent components assessed the feasibility, and impact of a prevention program to change social norms and increase collective efficacy in towns. Joint display analysis created a nuanced picture of the acceptability, feasibility, and impact of the program. This article contributes to the field of mixed methods research by bridging discussions of "interventionist" studies with models of community-based participatory mixed methods research into a combined community-engaged method.

"That Was the Happiest Time of My Life": Understanding Childhood Eco-Connections in Appalachian Communities.

The goal of this study was to explore facets of childhood eco-connections, using retrospective qualitative data from adults. One hundred and forty-five adults from predominantly rural and small-town communities in southern Appalachia (71.7% female), average age 36.23 years (SD = 12.08) participated in semi-structured qualitative interviews on key life experiences and the places they grew up. Mentions about place-related childhood memories or interactions were grouped into four themes based on exploratory thematic content analysis: nature nostalgia (positive reminiscences about nature experiences); nature immersion (extensive contact with the natural world during childhood); formative experiences with nature (nature interactions that taught a skill or life lesson); and rhythms of nature (appreciation of seasonal or cyclical patterns). Childhood eco-connections are multifaceted and often emerge from early impactful or intense experiences. Pro-environmentalism messages to youth may benefit from more references to childhood eco-connections.

High School Students' Perceptions of School Personnel's Intentions to Help Prevent Teen Sexual and Dating Violence: Associations with Attitudes and Intended Behaviors.

Adolescents are at high risk for sexual and dating violence (SDV) at school, indicating need for both adolescents and school personnel to engage in bystander behavior to prevent SDV. Adolescents' perceptions of social norms about bystander behavior, including their perceptions about social norms among school personnel, may impact adolescents' own SDV attitudes and intended bystander behavior. Based on social norms theory, the current research examines adolescents who underestimate, accurately perceive, and overestimate school personnel's reactive (responding to a current situation) and proactive (spreading messaging about prevention) bystander behaviors. High school students (N = 3,404; mean age = 15.7; 87.2% White; 87% heterosexual) and school personnel (N = 1,150) from 25 schools completed surveys. Adolescents who underestimated school personnel's reactive and proactive bystander behavior had more accepting attitudes towards violence and less bystander behavior intentions. Correcting misperceived norms about bystander behavior may improve students' own bystander behavior.

Using intergenerational photovoice to understand family strengths among Native American children and their caregivers.

The purpose of the current study was to examine Native American children and caregivers' perspectives of family and cultural strengths using photovoice and to identify lessons learned from the first-ever implementation of intergenerational photovoice with Native Americans. Participants were Native American, low-income caregivers (n = 6) and their children (n = 12) between the ages of 10 and 15 who participated in six photovoice sessions. The themes that emerged from photos and group discussion included myriad challenges faced by Native American families including exposure to community violence, substance abuse, and criminal offending and incarceration. Themes also emerged that highlighted the strengths of Native families that were used to overcome identified challenges, including religion/spirituality, engagement in traditional cultural practices (e.g., prayer, song, dance), healthy activities (e.g., running, meditation). These data provided foundational information that is currently being used, along with other data, to develop a culturally grounded, strengths-focused, family-based program (Tiwahe Wicagwicayapi [Strengthening/Growing Families in Lakota]) to prevent adverse childhood experiences. We also discuss the challenges of intergenerational photovoice and lessons learned to inform future intergenerational photovoice projects.

Voices of Youth and Emerging Adults on Suicide Prevention: Experiences and Expectations.

Self-directed violence (SDV) is a significant public health issue for adolescents and emerging adults, and yet youth exposure to prevention messaging and youth perspectives on SDV prevention needs are understudied. The current study sought to better understand the ways in which a national sample of youth and emerging adults were exposed to suicide prevention programs or conversations. A sample of 1031 young people ages 13-23 were recruited nationally through social media. Survey questions asked about SDV prevention exposure. Open-ended questions asked youth to suggest additional information they desired about SDV. A majority of participants (87%) reported that they had received prevention exposure from at least one source (i.e., family, online, attending a talk, or formal program) with few differences by demographic characteristics. However, sexual and gender minority (SGM) youth reported accessing more SDV prevention information online compared to other youth. Overall, youth had many ideas about what additional information they needed, including how to help someone at risk for SDV and how to access information about mental health. While the majority of youth are receiving some SDV prevention messages, there is variation in how they get this information, and survey participants still felt they were missing important information. Findings highlight the need to resource more comprehensive SDV prevention for youth and young adults.

Engaging Native American Youth and Their Caregivers in Sexual Violence Research: A Case Study Documenting Challenges, Opportunities, and Lessons Learned.

Native Americans (the preferred term of our partners/co-authors) experience high rates of sexual violence, which is rooted in colonization and multiple historical traumas. Sexual violence leads to numerous deleterious outcomes, underscoring the critical need for prevention early in life. Yet, most research to date on sexual violence has not focused on Native American populations, and we know little about the most effective strategies to recruit and retain Native American individuals in sexual violence prevention research. The purpose of the current study, grounded in principles of participatory action research, is to describe strategies that were used to recruit (e.g., traditional feeds, door knocking) and retain (e.g., monetary incentives, ongoing community engagement) Native American youth for a study that sought to assess, via surveys and qualitative interviews, the impacts of a youth-led sexual violence prevention initiative in a small city in the Great Plains. We also collected qualitative data from Native American caregivers regarding their perceptions of research. Overall, 67.9% (n = 545) of eligible Native American youth completed the survey, and school and door knocking were most effective methods of recruitment/enrollment followed by community and school events and texting. Over the course of 3 years of data collection, there were higher rates of attrition among Native American youth compared to white youth, and several factors (e.g., older age, sexual assault victimization) predicted attrition among Native American youth. Native American caregivers' responses reflected on reasons it is hard to engage youth and caregivers in research (e.g., lack of time, distrust) as well as strategies to enhance engagement (e.g., personal connection, providing community resources). Throughout the paper, Native American co-authors and project partners reflect on these findings. Implications for future sexual violence prevention research with Native American youth and their caregivers that uses decolonized, participatory action research methodologies are discussed.

Evaluating the Impact of a Youth-Led Sexual Violence Prevention Program: Youth Leadership Retreat Outcomes.

Involving youth in developing and implementing prevention programs to reduce sexual violence (SV) has the potential to improve prevention outcomes. However, there has been little focus on youth-led SV prevention programs, and limited evaluation research to help guide efforts. The current study examined the effectiveness of Youth Voices in Prevention (Youth VIP) leadership retreats on SV victimization and perpetration, forms of violence related to SV (e.g., bullying), SV bystander behaviors and readiness, and perceptions of norms related to SV prevention. Results identified mixed findings for program impact, with variations in outcomes that can help guide future youth-led prevention program initiatives. Youth attending a large "kick-off" leadership retreat (that was less youth-led that subsequent smaller retreats) later reported more bystander behaviors, but also reported increased perpetration and victimization, compared to non-attending youth. However, youth attending smaller, more focused leadership retreats held during the school year, reported reductions in sexual harassment perpetration and improved bystander behaviors and attitudes compared to non-attending youth. Evaluation of moderator variables suggests that program impact was generally stronger for younger participants, sexual minority youth, and non-White youth (which were largely Native American youth in this sample). Findings suggest promise for youth-led prevention work but also highlight the need for testing the impact of different training structures and modalities. Clinical trials number: NCT03207386.

Attendance at a Community-Based, After School, Youth-Led Sexual Violence Prevention Initiative.

Sexual violence (SV) among adolescents is a pervasive public health concern. Research on community-based prevention programs that seek to reach youth outside of school hours is less developed, but suggests positive effects. In the current paper, we examine attendance at community events and overnight retreats for a youth-led SV prevention initiative, Youth Voices in Prevention (Youth VIP) using survey (n = 2539) and short-answer (n = 1177) data from a broad sample of youth in a small urban district in the Great Plains (United States), where Youth VIP took place. Multivariate logistic regression models using multiple imputation sampling were tested for retreat and community event attendance (respectively). The model of retreat attendance found that those with past SV victimization had significantly higher odds of attending retreats and each additional extracurricular activity youth participated in was associated with increased odds of attendance. The model of event attendance found that male youth had significantly lower odds of attending an event and that odds of attending increased with each additional extracurricular activity reported. Age, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and bystander denial were not significant predictors of attendance. Short-answer questions, coded with content analysis, found that youth report being more likely to attend if events feature fun activities with their friends, money, or other incentives; in survey questions, youth report lack of time and lack of interest as the most common reasons for non-attendance. Findings suggest that programming that blends social time and recreational activities with SV content may improve youth attendance; additional recruitment may be needed to engage male youth and youth who are less involved in extracurriculars. This study provides important insight into youth attendance-who attends, who does not, and why-that can be leveraged by others when seeking to engage youth in SV prevention.

The stability of youth popular opinion leaders selected over time using social network analysis.

Community interventions that use social network analysis to identify and involve influential individuals are promising for behavior change. However, youth friendships are often unstable. The current study examined the stability of the youth selected as influential in a friendship social network, that is, the degree to which youth selected at one time point were also selected at subsequent time points. Influential youth, also called popular opinion leaders (POLs), were selected to be part of a community-wide sexual violence prevention initiative. POLs were selected based on high in-degree (number of times an individual was nominated as a best friend by another student). We found that POLs were unstable: only 29.81%-41.01% of POLs were stable across time. The percentage of POLs who were stable decreased across time. No factors (social identities, behavioral, attitudinal) consistently predicted POL stability. Although these findings are in need of replications, social network interventions for youth may need to repeatedly select new POLs to account for instability.

Prospective Associations Between Pornography Viewing and Sexual Aggression Among Adolescents.

Adolescence is a critical period for sexuality development; this study examined prospective associations between pornography use and sexual aggression using a longitudinal study of middle and high school students surveyed five times across 3 years (mean age = 13.7 years at baseline; 53.2% female; 76.5% White; 21.0% Native American; 88.9% heterosexual). Across waves, 15.7%-29.0% of adolescents had viewed pornography in the past 6 months. Results indicated significant, reciprocal associations between pornography and sexual harassment perpetration that were stronger for male adolescents, and some significant associations between pornography use and subsequent sexual assault perpetration. Findings underscore the need to consider multiple theories of the link between pornography viewing and aggression and need for media literacy sexual education beginning in middle school.

Youth perceptions of prevention norms and peer violence perpetration and victimization: A prospective analysis.

The purpose of the current study is to prospectively examine the extent to which social norms perceptions regarding commitment to ending sexual violence are associated with subsequent peer victimization and perpetration experiences. Two types of social norms perceptions were examined: 1) peer norms (perceptions of norms among other students in their city), and 2) adult norms (perceptions of norms among adults in their city). Participants were 1259 middle and high school youth from a single school district (three high schools and five middle schools) who completed online surveys at two-time points, 6 months apart. Adolescents for whom perceptions of peer norms were one standard deviation or more above and below the mean of actual norms were "over-perceivers" and "under-perceivers," respectively. Overperceivers overestimated their peers' commitment to ending sexual violence, whereas underperceivers underestimated their peers' commitment to ending sexual violence. Other adolescents were "accurate perceivers"; these adolescents were accurate in their estimation of their peers' commitment to ending sexual violence. In general, underperceivers (22.2% of the sample) were more likely than accurate perceivers (77.8% of the sample) to subsequently experience peer-to-peer perpetration and victimization. Adolescents who perceived adults to have a higher commitment to ending sexual violence were less likely to report subsequent perpetration and victimization for some forms of peer-to-peer violence. These findings highlight the potential promise of the social norms approaches to prevent peer-to-peer violence among youth which aligns with increasing calls in the field to integrate these approaches into comprehensive sexual violence prevention.