Nicotinic acid attenuates amyloid ß1-42-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and inhibits the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis in differentiated SH-SY5Y cells.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive memory loss and behavioral disorders. The excessive accumulation of amyloid ß (Aß) and the formation of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) damage synaptic connections and the death of neurons. However, the underlying mechanisms of pathogenesis of AD remain unclear. Growing evidence indicates that impaired mitochondrial function may play a crucial role in the development of AD. In the current study, we investigated whether nicotinic acid (NA) could protect against amyloid ß1-42-induced cytotoxicity in differentiated SH-SY5Y cells. Our results revealed the neuroprotective effects of NA on the differentiated SH-SY5Y cells treated with Aß1-42. In detail, the 1-h pre-incubation with NA increased cell viability and lowered LDH levels. NA pre-incubation abolished Aß1-42 treatment-associated alterations of mRNA levels of synaptic genes and enhanced the relative ß3 Tubulin fluorescence intensity. NA eliminated the Aß1-42-induced mitochondrial dysfunction by increasing the potential of mitochondrial membranes and maintaining a balance between the fusion and fission of mitochondria. Moreover, Aß1-42 decreased mRNA levels of anti-apoptotic bcl2 and increased mRNA levels of pro-apoptotic: bim, bak, cytochrome c, and caspase 9. At the same time, the NA pre-treatment reduced Aß1-42-dependent apoptotic death of differentiated SH-SY5Y cells. The above data suggest that NA presents a protective activity against Aß1-42-induced cytotoxicity in differentiated SH-SY5Y cells by inhibiting the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis and restoring the proper function of mitochondria.

In the Pursuit of Metabolic Markers of Systemic Sclerosis-Plasma Adiponectin and Omentin-1 in Monitoring the Course of the Disease.

Systemic sclerosis (SSc) is a connective tissue disease leading to cutaneous and visceral fibrosis. Pathological features of SSc include immune dysregulation, vasculopathy, and impaired angiogenesis. Adipokines act as cytokines and hormones and are involved in various pathological processes, including metabolic disorders, inflammation, vasculopathy, and fibrosis. This study aimed to determine the level of omentin-1 and adiponectin to evaluate their potential role in the pathogenesis of SSc. We assessed serum omentin-1 and adiponectin as well as metabolic parameters in 58 patients with SSc and 30 healthy controls. The follow-up was performed in SSc individuals. Omentin-1 levels were significantly higher in SSc individuals as compared to the controls. In post-hoc analysis, omentin-1 was higher in the group with disease duration ≥7 years than in the control group. A positive correlation was noted between disease duration and both adipokines and increased with longer disease duration. However, there were no correlations between selected adipokines and metabolic parameters. Enhanced omentin-1 levels and higher levels of omentin-1 in patients with longer disease duration may suggest that omentin-1 is involved in the pathomechanisms of SSc as its concentrations are not directly related to BMI, age, and insulin resistance.

Therapy of obesity in women with PCOS using GLP-1 analogues - benefits and limitations [Terapia otylosci u kobiet z PCOS przy zastosowaniu analogów GLP-1 - korzysci i ograniczenia].

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a heterogeneous endocrine disorder among women of reproductive age. The incidence ranges from approx. 6% to 20%. PCOS is characterized by a spectrum of symptoms and clinical features that includes ovarian dysfunction, clinical and/or biochemical hyperandrogenism, and ultrasound evidence of morphologically polycystic ovaries. Obesity is present in 40-70% of patients with the syndrome. Adiposity is involved in exacerbating the negative effects of insulin resistance, hyperinsulinaemia, and hyperandrogenaemia in the course of PCOS. Therefore, it is essential to maintain normal weight or effectively treat overweight/obesity in patients suffering from this endocrinopathy. Apart from diet and lifestyle interventions, an appropriate pharmacological or surgical treatment should be selected for the individual patient. Evidence-based data have unequivocally proven the validity of the use of glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) analogues in the treatment of overweight/obese patients with PCOS. The result of the GLP-1 therapy is not only a reduction of body weight but also an improvement in insulin resistance and a decrease in hyperandrogenaemia. It also seems that this treatment method increases spontaneous and in-vitro pregnancy rates. Therefore, the GLP-1 treatment of obese PCOS women is a new therapeutic opportunity not only for weight loss but also for a wide range of benefits. This review summarizes and discusses findings regarding obesity and its relation to hyperandrogenism and insulin resistance in PCOS, with special attention paid to the pharmacological treatment of adiposity with GLP-1 analogues.

Contribution of Mitochondrial Dysfunction Combined with NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation in Selected Neurodegenerative Diseases.

Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease are the most common forms of neurodegenerative illnesses. It has been widely accepted that neuroinflammation is the key pathogenic mechanism in neurodegeneration. Both mitochondrial dysfunction and enhanced NLRP3 (nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptor protein 3) inflammasome complex activity have a crucial role in inducing and sustaining neuroinflammation. In addition, mitochondrial-related inflammatory factors could drive the formation of inflammasome complexes, which are responsible for the activation, maturation, and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß) and interleukin-18 (IL-18). The present review includes a broadened approach to the role of mitochondrial dysfunction resulting in abnormal NLRP3 activation in selected neurodegenerative diseases. Moreover, we also discuss the potential mitochondria-focused treatments that could influence the NLRP3 complex.

The Beneficial Role of Natural Endocrine Disruptors: Phytoestrogens in Alzheimer's Disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia with a growing incidence rate primarily among the elderly. It is a neurodegenerative, progressive disorder leading to significant cognitive loss. Despite numerous pieces of research, no cure for halting the disease has been discovered yet. Phytoestrogens are nonestradiol compounds classified as one of the endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), meaning that they can potentially disrupt hormonal balance and result in developmental and reproductive abnormalities. Importantly, phytoestrogens are structurally, chemically, and functionally akin to estrogens, which undoubtedly has the potential to be detrimental to the organism. What is intriguing, although classified as EDCs, phytoestrogens seem to have a beneficial influence on Alzheimer's disease symptoms and neuropathologies. They have been observed to act as antioxidants, improve visual-spatial memory, lower amyloid-beta production, and increase the growth, survival, and plasticity of brain cells. This review article is aimed at contributing to the collective understanding of the role of phytoestrogens in the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Importantly, it underlines the fact that despite being EDCs, phytoestrogens and their use can be beneficial in the prevention of Alzheimer's disease.

Inflammasome NLRP3 Potentially Links Obesity-Associated Low-Grade Systemic Inflammation and Insulin Resistance with Alzheimer's Disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of neurodegenerative dementia. Metabolic disorders including obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) may stimulate amyloid ß (Aß) aggregate formation. AD, obesity, and T2DM share similar features such as chronic inflammation, increased oxidative stress, insulin resistance, and impaired energy metabolism. Adiposity is associated with the pro-inflammatory phenotype. Adiposity-related inflammatory factors lead to the formation of inflammasome complexes, which are responsible for the activation, maturation, and release of the pro-inflammatory cytokines including interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß) and interleukin-18 (IL-18). Activation of the inflammasome complex, particularly NLRP3, has a crucial role in obesity-induced inflammation, insulin resistance, and T2DM. The abnormal activation of the NLRP3 signaling pathway influences neuroinflammatory processes. NLRP3/IL-1ß signaling could underlie the association between adiposity and cognitive impairment in humans. The review includes a broadened approach to the role of obesity-related diseases (obesity, low-grade chronic inflammation, type 2 diabetes, insulin resistance, and enhanced NLRP3 activity) in AD. Moreover, we also discuss the mechanisms by which the NLRP3 activation potentially links inflammation, peripheral and central insulin resistance, and metabolic changes with AD.

The Association of Obesity with Autoimmune Thyroiditis and Thyroid Function-Possible Mechanisms of Bilateral Interaction.

A growing number of patients suffer from autoimmune diseases, including autoimmune thyroid disease. There has simultaneously been a significant increase in the prevalence of obesity worldwide. It is still an open question whether adiposity can directly influence activation of inflammatory processes affecting the thyroid in genetically predisposed individuals. Adipokines, biologically active substances derived from the adipocytes, belong to a heterogenic group of compounds involved in numerous physiological functions, including the maintenance of metabolism, hormonal balance, and immune response. Notably, the presence of obesity worsens the course of selected autoimmune diseases and impairs response to treatment. Moreover, the excess of body fat may result in the progression of autoimmune diseases. Nutritional status, body weight, and energy expenditure may influence thyroid hormone secretion. Interestingly, thyroid hormones might influence the activity of adipose tissue as metabolic alterations related to fat tissue are observed under pathological conditions in which there are deficits or overproduction of thyroid hormones. Functioning TSH receptors are expressed on adipocytes. Thermogenesis may presumably be stimulated by TSH binding to its receptor on brown adipocytes. There could be a bilateral interaction between the thyroid and adipose. Obesity may influence the onset and course of autoimmune disease.

The role of leptin in selected skin diseases.

Leptin is an adipokine, adipocyte-derived compound, which acts both as a hormone and cytokine. It is mainly synthesized by adipocytes of white adipose tissue. Leptin possesses pleiotropic functions including, among others, stimulation of angiogenesis and production of proinflammatory cytokines. The various types of leptin activity are related to the wide distribution of leptin receptors. This adipokine acts by activating intracellular signaling cascades such as JAKs (Janus kinases), STATs (signal transducers and activators of transcription), and others.In a course of obesity, an increased serum level of leptin coexists with tissue receptor resistance. It has been reported that enhanced leptin levels, leptin receptor impairment, and dysfunction of leptin signaling can influence skin and hair. The previous studies revealed the role of leptin in wound healing, hair cycle, and pathogenesis of skin diseases like psoriasis, lupus erythematosus, and skin cancers. However, the exact mechanism of leptin's impact on the skin is still under investigation. Herein, we present the current knowledge concerning the role of leptin in psoriasis and selected skin diseases.

Peripheral levels of selected adipokines in patients with newly diagnosed multiple sclerosis.

INTRODUCTION: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease of the central nervous system. The exact aetiology is unknown. However, genetic and environmental factors are suggested to be involved in the pathogenesis of MS. Improper diet, resulting in obesity and metabolic syndrome, can contribute to this disease. Adipokines, secreted by adipose tissue, link the metabolism and immune system. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We aimed to assess plasma levels of selected adipokines in newly diagnosed, treatment-naïve individuals with multiple sclerosis. Our group comprised 58 individuals (31 MS patients and 27 controls, matched for age and BMI) without diabetes, hypertension, or dyslipidaemia. Circulating adiponectin and all adiponectin fractions, visfatin, and omentin concentrations were measured. Metabolic parameters were also assessed. RESULTS: In MS individuals we observed the following results: higher concentrations of visfatin, lower levels of omentin, and no differences in adiponectin array. There were also correlations between some adipokines and metabolic parameters. After adjustment to BMI, a significant decrease in total adiponectin, high-molecular weight (HMW) adiponectin and omentin, and an increase in medium-molecular-weight (MMW) adiponectin were observed in the group of MS patients when compared to those of the controls. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that adiponectin with its fractions, visfatin, and omentin cannot be considered as causative factors in the early phase of multiple sclerosis. However, the potential role of adipokines in MS is possible because they might be involved in the pathogenesis of MS, regarded as an autoimmune disorder.

Vascular Dysfunction and Insulin Resistance in Aging.

Insulin was discovered in 1922 by Banting and Best. Since that time, extensive research on the mechanisms of insulin activity and action has continued. Currently, it is known that the role of insulin is much greater than simply regulating carbohydrate metabolism. Insulin in physiological concentration is also necessary to maintain normal vascular function. Insulin resistance is defined as a pathological condition characterized by reduced sensitivity of skeletal muscles, liver, and adipose tissue, to insulin and its downstream metabolic effects under normal serum glucose concentrations. There are also selective forms of insulin resistance with unique features, including vascular insulin resistance. Insulin resistance, both classical and vascular, contributes to vascular impairment resulting in increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Furthermore, in the elderly population, additional factors including redistribution of fat concentrations, low-grade inflammation, and decreased self-repair capacity [or cell senescence] amplify the vascular abnormalities related to insulin resistance.

Plasma adiponectin array in women with Alzheimer's disease.

Introduction Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive and irreversible neurodegenerative disease. Typical features of AD include memory loss, social dysfunction and physical impairment. Although the pathological findings in the central nervous system are well established, the etiological factors are poorly known. Recent studies suggested the role of metabolic disturbances in the development of AD neurodegeneration. Adiponectin, an anti-inflammatory and metabolism regulating factor, was linked to AD. Aim The aim was to examine whether adiponectin fractions combined with insulin/insulin resistance-associated metabolic parameters correlate with AD progression. Material and methods The study comprised 98 women: 27 with moderate to severe AD, 31 with AD at early stage and 40 healthy controls, matched for age and BMI. To evaluate memory impairment, the MMSE was performed. Plasma total adiponectin and its high-, medium- and low molecular weights were measured with ELISA. Anthropometric, clinical and metabolic parameters were assessed. Correlations between adiponectin array and measured parameters were evaluated. Results In comparison to the controls, enhanced levels of total and medium molecular weight adiponectin characterized AD individuals. In AD, we found correlations between adiponectin array, and anthropometric and biochemical parameters. After adjustment to BMI, a significant increase of the total adiponectin and high- and medium molecular weight fractions was observed. A negative correlation between low molecular weight adiponectin and MMSE was found. Conclusions Our results indicate a possible link between adiponectin variations and AD. We hypothesize that changes in adiponectin profile observed in AD result from compensatory mechanism against neuropathological processes, as well as from adiponectin homeostasis impairment.

Insulin and brain aging.

The world's population is living much longer than in the past. It is crucial to find as many pathological factors that deteriorate the health condition and well-being of elderly people as possible. Loss of activity and functions over time is typical for elderly people. Aging affects brain function, metabolism and structure in different ways, and these effects have multiple etiologies. Cognitive impairment, impaired neurotransmitter activity and reduction of brain volume are observed in the elderly population. The process of brain aging is associated with a decrease of central insulin concentration as well as impairment of insulin receptor binding ability, resulting in deterioration of glucose homeostasis in the brain. Peripheral insulin resistance is a typical feature of older age. Data from the literature suggest that high circulating insulin and insulin resistance are important contributors to progressive cognitive impairment and neurodegenerative processes. The maintenance of insulin sensitivity and proper insulin signaling may lead to preserved cognition that results in well-being of elderly people.

Adipokine profile in patients with anorexia nervosa.

INTRODUCTION: Anorexia nervosa (AN) is an eating disorder characterised with extremely low weight. Adipokines are adipose tissue-derived substances that show a wide spectrum of biological activities. We aimed to assess selected adipokine levels in women with AN before and after nutritional intervention. We also sought to examine whether BMI is the only confounding factor influencing adipokine assessment in AN. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Sixty-five women participated in the study: 20 individuals with AN before any treatment, 18 AN patients after nutritional intervention lasting for at least six months, and 27 women as controls. In all participants blood collection and anthropometric measurements were performed. ELISA was used for evaluation of leptin receptor, adiponectin and its isoforms, and resistin. Leptin was assessed with RIA, and visfatin was measured with EIA assay. RESULTS: Leptin and free leptin index (FLI) were lowest in treatment-naïve AN women. HMW-adiponectin and visfatin were enhanced in AN. Other adipokine levels showed no significant differences. When two subsets of anorexia nervosa were compared, only leptin, leptin receptor, and FLI were markedly different. When data were adjusted to BMI, leptin and FLI remained significantly different in the pre-treated AN subgroup when compared with the control group. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that leptin is the most important adipokine in AN. It is also important that in our AN population leptin and FLI are the only factors that are influenced not only by the fat content.

Plasma leptin levels and free leptin index in women with Alzheimer's disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by irreversible and progressive loss of memory and other cognitive functions. Controversies still exist on the precise mechanisms contributing to neurodegeneration. Obesity and disturbances in metabolic homeostasis are thought to be AD risk factors. Adipokine leptin has receptors in the brain, also in the regions related to AD. Leptin may protect against AD. The aim was to assess leptin and soluble leptin receptor levels in plasma as well as free leptin index (FLI) in correlation with metabolic status of women diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease. Eighteen women with moderate to severe stage of AD, 40 women with AD at early stage, and 42 female controls, matched for age and body mass index, participated in the study. Leptin and soluble leptin receptor levels were measured with RIA and IRMA, respectively. Then, FLI was calculated. In addition, metabolic parameters (lipid profile, glucose and insulin concentrations, HOMA-IR) were estimated. Clinical and anthropometric data were collected. The Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) as a cognitive impairment measurement was performed. Correlations with both leptin and FLI, and MMSE, clinical and biochemical parameters were evaluated. Leptin levels and FLI were significantly lower and leptin receptor concentrations were higher in AD subjects when compared with the controls. In AD group leptin, soluble leptin receptor and FLI correlated with selected metabolic parameters but not with MMSE. We conclude that alterations in leptin, leptin receptor, and FLI were the most intensified in advanced AD. However, these results did not correlate with dementia stage measured with MMSE. Therefore, further intensive research is needed to explain the mechanisms involved in this phenomenon.

Association of copeptin and cortisol in newly diagnosed multiple sclerosis patients.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic autoimmune disease of the central nervous system. Obesity may increase the risk of developing MS. The aim of this study was to evaluate copeptin and cortisol plasma levels in newly diagnosed untreated MS patients and to determine whether copeptin and cortisol are related to the patients' clinical statuses. We report that copeptin and cortisol were higher in overweight/obese MS patients. Positive correlations were observed between the two parameters. We conclude that alterations of copeptin and cortisol levels in multiple sclerosis patients may be related to adiposity. An increase in cortisol may also be associated with copeptin secretion.

Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) in humans with multiple sclerosis.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic neuroinflammatory disease of the central nervous system that leads to demyelination and neurodegeneration. VIP and PACAP are structurally related neuropeptides with neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory activities. To evaluate VIP and PACAP-38 in plasma and CSF in humans in correlation with IL-6, IL-10 and TNFα, we compared 20 MS individuals with 27 healthy controls. In MS, a decrease in PACAP-38 in CSF and a decrease in plasma IL-6 concentration were seen. A positive correlation between plasma VIP and plasma IL-6 was identified. We conclude that VIP and PACAP may influence the course of MS.

Assessment of adiponectin and its isoforms in Polish centenarians.

BACKGROUND: The physiological mechanisms that promote longevity remain unclear. It has been suggested that insulin sensitivity is preserved in centenarians, whereas typical aging is accompanied by increasing insulin resistance. The oldest-old individuals display raised total adiponectin levels, despite the potential correlation between enhanced adiponectin and all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. AIM: To evaluate the level of adiponectin and its isoforms in sera of centenarians and to assess associations between adiponectin and metabolic parameters. PARTICIPANTS: A group of 58 Polish centenarians (50 women and 8 men, mean age 101±1.34 years) and 68 elderly persons (55 women and 13 men, mean age 70±5.69 years) as controls. MEASUREMENTS: Serum samples were analyzed to evaluate the following parameters: adiponectin array (total adiponectin, HWM-, MMW- and LMW-adiponectin; all by ELISA methods), insulin (by IRMA methods), glucose and lipid profiles. HOMA-IR was calculated. Clinical data were collected. Statistical analyses were performed. RESULTS: The concentrations of all adiponectin isoforms were significantly higher in the oldest-old participants. In the centenarian group, total adiponectin positively correlated with age and HDL-cholesterol, and HMW-adiponectin was negatively associated with insulin and triglycerides. The long-lived participants had a lower incidence of hypertension, type 2 diabetes, overweight and obesity, with lower concentrations of serum glucose and insulin, and reduced HOMA-IR. CONCLUSION: Our findings support the thesis that centenarians possess a different adiponectin isoform pattern and have a favorable metabolic phenotype in comparison with elderly individuals. However, additional work is necessary to understand the relevance of these findings to longevity.

Resistin levels in women with ischemic stroke.

OBJECTIVES: Resistin may be an independent inflammatory marker of atherosclerosis. Therefore, its circulating level might be important prognostic factor of cardiovascular disease in humans. We aimed in this study to assess plasma resistin concentration in Polish women with acute ischemic stroke, who additionally suffer from chronic diseases: diabetes, hypertension and/or obesity. The changes of resistin levels after 10 days from the onset of stroke and possible associations between resistin and pro-inflammatory cytokine TNFα were also evaluated. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Material consisted of 41 women with ischemic stroke (aged 60-85 years) and 64 controls (aged 60-85 years). Circulating resistin and TNFα concentrations were measured using ELISA. Blood was taken twice in the stroke group, in the first and tenth day from the onset of clinical symptoms, and only once in the controls. Clinical and biochemical data (blood pressure, weight, height, glucose, insulin, lipid profile) were collected. RESULTS: Higher concentrations of resistin and TNFα were observed in ischemic stroke patients at the first day comparing to the controls. Second evaluation after 10 days in comparison with the first measurement revealed significantly higher TNFα levels and non-significant lower values of resistin. Resistin positively correlated with TNFα and stroke severity. CONCLUSIONS: Changes in resistin and TNFα concentrations were observed in the course of stroke. Further investigations are required to assess the implication of these findings. Higher resistin concentration might be associated with worse neurological deficits.

Identification of a late onset Alzheimer's disease candidate risk variant at 9q21.33 in Polish patients.

Late onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD) accounts for about 95% of all Alzheimer's disease cases. While the APOE ε4 variant seems to have unparalleled influence on increased LOAD risk, it does not explain all of the heritability of LOAD. In this study, we present the application of a cost-effective, pooled DNA genome-wide association study (GWAS) to uncover genetic risk variants associated with LOAD in Polish women diagnosed with either mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or well-defined LOAD. A group of 141 patients (94 LOAD and 47 MCI), as well as 141 controls, were assayed using Affymetrix Genome-Wide Human SNP 6.0 arrays. Allele frequency distributions were compared using χ(2)-tests, and significantly associated SNPs at p < 0.0001 with a proxy SNP were selected. GWAS marker selection was conducted using PLINK, and selected SNPs were validated on DNA samples from the same cohort using KASPar Assays. In addition, to determine the genotype of APOE variants (rs429358, rs7412), a multiplex tetra-primer amplification refractory mutation system was applied. The GWAS revealed nine SNPs associated with MCI and/or LOAD. Of these, the association of seven SNPs was confirmed by genotyping of individual patients. Furthermore, the APOE ε4 appeared to be a risk variant for LOAD, while the APOE ε3 showed a protective effect. Multivariate analysis showed association between rs7856774 and LOAD, independently from the effect of APOE variation. Pooled DNA GWAS enabled the identification of a novel LOAD candidate risk variant, rs7856774 (9q21.33), tagging a possible genomic enhancer affecting proximal transcribed elements including DAPK1 gene.

Decreased total serum adiponectin and its isoforms in women with acute ischemic stroke.

OBJECTIVE: An association between cerebral infarct risk factors and serum adiponectin levels (both total and separate isoforms) has previously been identified. The aim of this study was to assess circulating levels of all forms of adiponectin in the course of an ischemic stroke. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Adiponectin and its isoforms (HMW, MMW and LMW) were measured in serum samples taken from 38 women in the first 24 hours of cerebral infarct and 38 controls matched for gender, body mass index (BMI) and age. In addition, biochemical parameters (glucose, insulin, lipid profile) and clinical data (blood pressure, weight, and height) were evaluated. RESULTS: A significant reduction in serum levels of adiponectin and all examined fractions of this adipokine was observed in women suffering from acute ischemic stroke, compared with the matched controls. CONCLUSIONS: Differences in the serum adiponectin array between stroke subjects and controls were identified and further studies are required to investigate the clinical implications of this finding.