A postbiotic from Aspergillus oryzae attenuates the impact of heat stress in ectothermic and endothermic organisms.

Heat stress is detrimental to food-producing animals and animal productivity remains suboptimal despite the use of heat abatement strategies during summer. Global warming and the increase of frequency and intensity of heatwaves are likely to continue and, thus, exacerbate the problem of heat stress. Heat stress leads to the impairment of physiological and cellular functions of ectothermic and endothermic animals. Therefore, it is critical to conceive ways of protecting animals against the pathological effects of heat stress. In experiments with endothermic animals highly sensitive to heat (Bos taurus), we have previously reported that heat-induced systemic inflammation can be ameliorated in part by nutritional interventions. The experiments conducted in this report described molecular and physiological adaptations to heat stress using Drosophila melanogaster and dairy cow models. In this report, we expand previous work by first demonstrating that the addition of a postbiotic from Aspergillus oryzae (AO) into the culture medium of ectothermic animals (Drosophila melanogaster) improved survival to heat stress from 30 to 58%. This response was associated with downregulation of genes involved in the modulation of oxidative stress and immunity, most notably metallothionein B, C, and D. In line with these results, we subsequently showed that the supplementation with the AO postbiotic to lactating dairy cows experiencing heat stress decreased plasma concentrations of serum amyloid A and lipopolysaccharide-binding protein, and the expression of interleukin-6 in white blood cells. These alterations were paralleled by increased synthesis of energy-corrected milk and milk components, suggesting enhanced nutrient partitioning to lactogenesis and increased metabolic efficiency. In summary, this work provides evidence that a postbiotic from AO enhances thermal tolerance likely through a mechanism that entails reduced inflammation.

Associations between postpartum diseases and milk yield and changes in body condition between drying off and parturition of dairy cows in Argentina.

Aims: To assess the change in body condition score (BCS) during the early and late dry periods and its association with postpartum diseases and milk yield in grazing dairy cows from central Argentina. Methods: BCS assessments during the dry period, and cow health and milk production records up to 90 days in milk (DIM), were collated for cows from 28 farms at monthly visits between 2007 and 2008. Cows were categorised into four groups; those in Group 1 (n=7,067) maintained or gained BCS during the early and late dry periods; Group 2 (n=2,615) maintained or gained BCS during the early dry period and lost BCS during the late dry period; Group 3 (n=1,989) lost BCS during the early dry period and maintained or gained BCS during the late dry period; and Group 4 (n=5,144) lost BCS during the early and late dry periods. Results: Cows in Group 1 had reduced odds of having retained fetal membranes (RFM), metritis, and clinical mastitis up to 90 DIM than cows in Group 2 (p<0.001), but the odds of disease were similar to cows in Group 3. The odds of having RFM or clinical mastitis tended to be lower in cows in Group 1 than cows in Group 4 (p=0.08). The odds of cows being culled or dying during the first 90 DIM were lower for cows in Group 1 than for those in Groups 2, 3, and 4 (p≤0.05). Mean accumulated milk yield up to 90 DIM was higher in cows in Group 1 than Group 2 and Group 4 (p<0.001), but was similar to that of cows in Group 3 (p=0.28). Conclusions and clinical relevance: Cows that lost BCS during the late dry period had increased odds of being diagnosed with several postpartum diseases and had decreased milk yield compared to cows that maintained or gained BCS during the entire dry period. Loss of BCS during any stage of the dry period was also associated with increased incidence of culling or death during the first 90 DIM. These results should raise awareness among dairy cattle producers of the importance of properly managing cow body condition during the dry period, especially during the late dry period.

Monensin for lactating dairy cows grazing mixed-alfalfa pasture and supplemented with partial mixed ration.

The effect of monensin on milk production was evaluated in 58 lactating Holstein cows (48 multiparous; 10 primiparous) grazing a mixed-alfalfa pasture and supplemented with a partial mixed ration in a completely randomized design with repeated measurements. Cows were paired by calving date, lactation number, previous lactation milk production, body weight, and body condition score and were assigned to one of 2 treatments: control or monensin. Cows on the monensin treatment received 2 monensin controlled-release capsules (335 mg/d for 90 d), one 30 d before the expecting calving date and the other 60 d after calving. Short-term (0 to 150 d in milk) and long-term (305-d adjusted lactation) effects of monensin were evaluated. Pasture (measured by difference between pre- and postgrazing pasture mass), supplements, and total dry matter intake did not differ between treatments and averaged 8.7, 14.1, and 22.9 kg/d, respectively. In the short-term, monensin increased milk production (27.7 vs. 26.6 kg/d) and milk protein yield (0.890 vs. 0.860 kg/d); milk fat yield was not affected (0.959 kg/d). Monensin decreased milk fat content (3.51 vs. 3.60%) with no changes in milk protein content (3.25%). In the long term, milk production and milk protein yield were also increased by monensin: 214 and 7 kg, respectively. Monensin reduced the loss of body condition score and increased percentage of pregnancy at first service (44.8 vs. 20.7%). Monensin improves production and reproduction performance of dairy cows grazing a mixed-alfalfa pasture and supplemented with a partial mixed ration.

Grazing behavior affects daily ruminal pH and NH3 oscillations of dairy cows on pasture.

Grazing behavior of Holstein cows in late lactation at 2 pasture allowances without or with supplementation was studied in a single reversal design. Twenty multiparous cows (4 ruminally cannulated) grazed a bromegrass/orchardgrass pasture offered at 2 pasture allowances: 1) low, and 2) high, with 25 and 40 kg/d of DM per cow, respectively. Half of the cows were supplemented with a mineral/vitamin mixture (1 kg/ d of the mix in a corn/molasses carrier) and the other half supplemented with a corn-based concentrate (1 kg of concentrate per 4 kg of milk). Automatic behavior recorders were used to measure grazing time and number of bites. For the mineral/vitamin mixture-supplemented cows, grazing time and number of bites after the p.m. milking was greater and ruminal pH was numerically lower at the high pasture allowance. For the concentrate-supplemented cows, grazing behavior and ruminal pH did not differ between the 2 pasture allowances. Pattern of grazing time of mineral/vitamin mixture-supplemented and concentrate-supplemented cows influenced daily oscillations of ruminal pH and NH3-N concentration. Pasture allowance affected grazing behavior of mineral/vitamin mixture-supplemented cows; however grazing behavior of concentrate-supplemented cows was not affected by pasture allowance.

Effects of replacing dietary starch with sucrose on ruminal fermentation and nitrogen metabolism in continuous culture.

A dual-effluent continuous-culture system was used to evaluate the effects of partially replacing cornstarch with sucrose in a total mixed ration on ruminal fermentation and N metabolism. The 4 treatments were 0 (control), 2.5, 5.0, and 7.5% sucrose and, respectively, 7.5 (control), 5.0, 2.5, and 0% cornstarch in a total mixed ration containing 20% corn silage and 40% alfalfa silage. Fermenters were fed 4 times a day during four 9-d periods with sampling beginning on d 6. Replacing cornstarch with sucrose did not alter ruminal pH (5.97), total volatile fatty acids (VFA) (104.4 mmol/L), or the acetate to propionate ratio (2.16); however, branched-chain volatile fatty acids were higher for the control treatment compared with the 7.5% sucrose treatment. Five hours postfeeding, sucrose treatments significantly altered molar proportions of all volatile fatty acids, and acetate-to-propionate and glucogenic-to-lipogenic ratios. Digestibility of dry matter and N were not affected by treatment, but digestibility of total non-structural carbohydrates was increased with sucrose treatments. A quadratic effect was noted for neutral detergent fiber (NDF) digestibility as sucrose replaced starch. A higher NDF digestibility (66.1 vs. 59.9%) was observed for the 7.5% sucrose treatment compared with the other 2 sucrose treatments. Levels of ammonia N were within an acceptable range to support microbial protein synthesis and did not differ among treatments (mean=9.23 mg/dL). Sucrose inclusion in the total mixed ration did not affect bacterial N synthesis. Results indicate that (at the levels tested in this study) inclusion of sucrose in the diet when rumen-degradable protein is adequate does not affect ruminal fermentation.

The effect of pasture allowance and supplementation on feed efficiency and profitability of dairy systems.

Partial budgeting was used to compare income over feed costs of high-yielding Holstein cows based on data from an experiment with 4 dietary treatments arranged in a 2 x 2 factorial. The factors were low (25 kg DM/cow per day) and high (40 kg DM/cow per day) pasture allowance (PA) and supplemental grain fed at 1 kg/4 kg of milk or no supplemental grain fed. The 4 treatments were low PA unsupplemented (LPAU), low PA concentrate supplementation (LPAC), high PA unsupplemented (HPAU), and high PA concentrate supplementation (HPAC). Two management systems were modeled. The first, a fixed herd size flexible rotation length model, and the second, a flexible herd size model where rotation length was fixed. The LPAC treatment yielded the highest income over feed costs, followed by the HPAC treatment. The treatment generating the lowest income was the HPAU system. The low PA systems generated more income than did the high PA systems for equivalent supplemental feeding strategies. The results also showed that feeding supplemental grain increased the income-over-feed costs compared with systems that did not feed supplemental grain. In most treatments, comparing the fixed herd against the flexible herd models, the flexible herd size model generated higher income due to the substitution of relatively low income per hectare of hay production for higher income from milk production. There were also differences in feed conversion efficiencies for milk production due to concentrate supplementation (1.04 unsupplemented vs. 1.21 supplemented), but PA did not affect the efficiency of milk production. Neither supplementation nor PA affected the feed conversion efficiency of milk fat yield. However, the efficiency of milk protein yield was affected by concentrate supplementation (0.028 unsupplemented vs. 0.034 supplemented) but not by pasture allowance.

Milk fatty acid composition of cows fed a total mixed ration or pasture plus concentrates replacing corn with fat.

Thirty-one Holstein cows (six ruminally cannulated) were used to evaluate milk fatty acids (FA) composition and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) content on three dietary treatments: 1) total mixed rations (TMR), 2) pasture (Avena sativa L.) plus 6.7 kg DM/d of corn-based concentrate (PCorn), and 3) pasture plus PCorn with 0.8 kg DM/d of Ca salts of unsaturated FA replacing 1.9 kg DM/d of corn (PFat). No differences were found in total (22.4 kg/d) or pasture (18.5 kg/d) dry matter intake, ruminal pH, or total volatile fatty acids concentrations. Fat supplementation did not affect pasture neutral detergent fiber digestion. Milk production did not differ among treatments (19.9 kg/d) but 4% fat-corrected milk was lower for cows fed the PFat compared to cows fed the TMR (16.1 vs. 19.5 kg/d) primarily because of the lower milk fat percentage (2.56 vs. 3.91%). Milk protein concentration was higher for cows fed the TMR than those on both pasture treatments (3.70 vs. 3.45%). Milk from the cows fed the PCorn had a lower content of short- (11.9 vs. 10.4 g/100 g) and medium-chain (56.5 vs. 47.6 g/100 g) FA, and a higher C18:3 percentage (0.07 vs. 0.57 g/100 g) compared with TMR-fed. Cows fed the PFat had the lowest content of short- (8.85 g/100 g) and medium-chain (41.0 g/100 g) FA, and the highest of long-chain FA (51.4 g/100 g). The CLA content was higher for cows in PCorn treatment (1.12 g/100 g FA) compared with cows fed the TMR (0.41 g/100 g FA), whereas the cows fed the PFat had the highest content (1.91 g/100 g FA). Pasture-based diets increased the concentrations of long-chain unsaturated FA and CLA in milk fat. The partial replacement of corn grain by Ca salts of unsaturated FA in grazing cows accentuated these changes. However, those changes in milk FA composition were related to a depression in milk fat.

Pasture intake and substitution rate effects on nutrient digestion and nitrogen metabolism during continuous culture fermentation.

A continuous culture system was used to investigate ruminal digestion in response to increased pasture intake and three different substitution rates (SR) in a 4 x 4 Latin square design. The treatments were 1) low pasture (55 g dry matter (DM)/d, 2) medium pasture (MP, 65 g DM/d), 3) high pasture (75 g DM/d), and 4) pasture (45 g DM/d) plus concentrate (PC, 30 g DM/d). Treatments were designed to produce a low (0.33), medium (0.67), and high (1.00) SR (g of pasture/g of concentrate) by contrasting the low, medium, and high pasture intake treatments with the pasture plus concentrate treatment, respectively. Pasture was fed at 0630, 1000, 1730, and 2100 h, and concentrate at 0600 and 1700 h. Digestibility of DM and neutral detergent fiber were not affected by the amount of pasture. As the amount of pasture increased, pH decreased linearly, and total volatile fatty acid and NH3-N concentrations, and nonammonia N and bacterial N flows increased linearly. Concentrate supplementation did not affect DM digestibility at high SR but increased DM digestibility at low SR. Concentrate supplementation reduced pH and NH3-N concentrations at the three SR. Concentrate supplementation reduced the ratio of rumen degradable N to rumen degradable organic matter; however, the mechanism depended on the SR. High SR, concentrate supplementation reduced rumen degradable N, which reduced NIH-N concentration without affecting bacterial N flow. At low SR, concentrate supplementation increased rumen degradable organic matter, which reduced NH3-N concentration and increased bacterial N flow. Based on these results, at low SR, concentrate supplementation may enhance animal performance because of higher total DM intake and synthesis of microbial protein.

Economic analyses of feeding systems combining pasture and total mixed ration.

Partial budgeting was used to compare net incomes of high-yielding Holstein cows fed either a total mixed ration (TMR), a pasture-based diet, or a combination of both. Variables included in the analysis were milk income, feed, feeding, manure handling, fencing, and water system expenses (revenues and costs based on 2000 values). Base data were from 45 Holstein cows (109 days in milk), assigned to one of three dietary treatments: TMR (nongrazing with TMR ad libitum), pasture plus TMR (pTMR, with pasture in the day and TMR at night), or pasture plus concentrate (PC, pasture twice daily plus 1 kg of concentrate/4 kg milk). Data from those groups were projected to a case-study herd of 70 cows and subjected to sensitivity analysis at varying milk prices and feed and pasture costs. Although costs per kilogram of milk produced were lowest for PC cows, cows on TMR had the highest net income per cow per day (5.61 dollars) because of higher yields of milk (38.1 kg/d) and milk components (1.24 kg/d of fat, 1.13 kg/d of true protein), although expenses were highest among all systems (4.12 dollars). Cows on the PC had lower daily net income (5.31 dollars) due to lower yields of milk (28.5 kg/d) and milk components (0.89 kg/d of fat, 0.79 kg/d of true protein) even though expenses were also lowest (2.57 dollars). Cows fed the pTMR were intermediate in production (32.0 kg/d of milk, 1.06 kg/d of fat, 0.93 kg/d of true protein) but had similar daily net income per cow (5.28 dollars) to the PC cows but were lower than the TMR cows. Sensitivity analysis showed that the TMR system was more profitable than the pTMR and PC systems, with expenses considered, except at combinations of lower milk prices and higher feed costs. Differences between the pTMR and PC systems were less, with PC being more profitable in half of the scenarios, particularly at lower milk prices and higher feed costs.

Supplemental carbohydrate sources for lactating dairy cows on pasture.

Two experiments were conducted to evaluate steam-flaked corn and nonforage fiber sources as supplemental carbohydrates for lactating dairy cows on pasture. Cows were allotted to a new paddock of an orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata L.) pasture twice daily in one group in both trials. In experiment 1, 28 Holstein cows, averaging 216 d in milk, were randomly assigned to either a cracked-corn (CC) or a steam-flaked (SFC) supplement in a split plot design. The supplement contained 66.7% of corn and a protein/mineral pellet. In experiment 2, 28 Holstein cows, averaging 182 d in milk, were randomly assigned to either a ground corn (GC) or a nonforage fiber (NFF)-based supplemented in a single reversal design. The GC supplement contained 85% ground corn plus protein, mineral, and vitamins. The NFF supplement contained 35% ground corn, 18% beet pulp, 18% soyhulls, 8% wheat middlings plus protein, mineral, and vitamins. In both experiments, cows were fed the grain supplement twice daily after each milking at 1 kg/4 kg milk. In experiment 1, milk production (24.3 kg/d) and composition did not differ between treatments; however, plasma and milk urea N were lower with the SFC supplement. In experiment 2, milk production (27.5 kg/d) was not affected by treatments, which may be related to the medium quality of pasture grazed. The GC supplement tended to reduce plasma and milk urea N and increased milk protein percentage (3.23 vs. 3.19%). Pasture dry matter intake, measured using Cr2O3, did not differ between treatments in either experiment 1 (15.1 kg/d) or experiment 2 (12.2 kg/d). Milk production did not differ when mid-late lactation cows on pasture were supplemented with SFC or NFF instead of dry corn.

Invited review: production and digestion of supplemented dairy cows on pasture.

Literature with data from dairy cows on pasture was reviewed to evaluate the effects of supplementation on intake, milk production and composition, and ruminal and postruminal digestion. Low dry matter intake (DMI) of pasture has been identified as a major factor limiting milk production by high producing dairy cows. Pasture DMI in grazing cows is a function of grazing time, biting rate, and bite mass. Concentrate supplementation did not affect biting rate (58 bites/min) or bite mass (0.47 g of DM/bite) but reduced grazing time 12 min/d per kilogram of concentrate compared with unsupplemented cows (574 min/d). Substitution rate, or the reduction in pasture DMI per kilogram of concentrate, is a factor which may explain the variation in milk response to supplementation. A negative relationship exists between substitution rate and milk response; the lower the substitution rate the higher the milk response to supplements. Milk production increases linearly as the amount of concentrate increases from 1.2 to 10 kg DM/d, with an overall milk response of 1 kg milk/kg concentrate. Compared with pasture-only diets, increasing the amount of concentrate supplementation up to 10 kg DM/d increased total DMI 24%, milk production 22%, and milk protein percentage 4%, but reduced milk fat percentage 6%. Compared with dry ground corn, supplementation with nonforage fiber sources or processed corn did not affect total DMI, milk production, or milk composition. Replacing ruminal degradable protein sources with ruminal undegradable protein sources in concentrates did not consistently affect milk production or composition. Forage supplementation did not affect production when substitution rate was high. Fat supplementation increased milk production by 6%, without affecting milk fat and protein content. Increasing concentrate from 1.1 to 10 kg DM/d reduced ruminal pH 0.08 and NH3-N concentration 6.59 mg/dl, compared with pasture-only diets. Replacing dry corn by high moisture corn, steam-flaked or steam-rolled corn, barley, or fiber-based concentrates reduced ruminal NH3-N concentration 4.36 mg/dl. Supplementation did not affect in situ pasture digestion, except for a reduction in rate of degradation when high amounts of concentrate were supplemented. Supplementation with energy concentrates reduced digestibility of neutral detergent fiber and intake of N but did not affect digestibility of organic matter or flow of microbial N.

Performance of high producing dairy cows with three different feeding systems combining pasture and total mixed rations.

Forty-five Holsteins cows in early to mid lactation were used to compare three feeding systems combining pasture and total mixed rations (TMR) on animal performance in a 21-wk repeated-measures experiment. The three treatments were: 1) pasture plus concentrate (PC), 2) pasture plus partial TMR (pTMR), and 3) TMR (non-pasture). Total dry matter intake, using chromic oxide as a marker, was 21.6, 25.2, and 26.7 kg/d for PC, pTMR, and TMR, respectively. Milk production was highest for TMR (38.1 kg/d), lowest on PC (28.5 kg/d), and intermediate for pTMR (32.0 kg/d). Cows on pTMR and TMR had higher milk fat and true protein percentages than cows on PC. Cows on PC gained less body weight and lost more body condition compared with cows on pTMR and TMR. Initial concentrations of plasma nonesterified fatty acids were higher on PC (302 microeq/L) than on pTMR (130 microeq/L) and TMR (225 microeq/L). Plasma and milk urea nitrogen were lower on both pTMR and TMR than on PC. Combining pasture and TMR resulted in higher milk production, milk fat and protein percentage, and maintenance in body condition score compared to pasture plus concentrate. The TMR feeding system resulted in the highest total dry matter intake and milk production.

Ruminal digestion and fermentation of high-producing dairy cows with three different feeding systems combining pasture and total mixed rations.

Six multiparous Holstein cows fitted with rumen cannulas were used to study the effect of three feeding systems combining pasture and total mixed rations (TMR) on ruminal digestion in a 21-wk repeated measures experiment. The three treatments were: 1) pasture plus concentrate (PC), 2) pasture plus partial TMR (pTMR), and 3) TMR (nonpasture). Ruminal NH3-N concentration was lower on both the pTMR and TMR treatments (10.2 +/- 0.5 mg/dL) than on the PC treatment (19.9 +/- 0.5 mg/dL). Ruminal pH was not affected by treatments and averaged 5.87. Neither total volatile fatty acid concentration (137.5 mmol/L) nor individual volatile fatty acid proportions (63.1,20.6, and 12.0 mol/ 100 mol for acetate, propionate, and butyrate, respectively) differed among treatments. The pTMR treatment reduced the total potentially degradable fraction of dry matter (85.5 vs. 82.3%) and the potentially digestible fraction of neutral detergent fiber (82.1 vs. 74.9%) of pasture compared to the PC treatment. Ruminal NH3-N losses were reduced when combining pasture and TMR; however this combination decreased the ruminal digestion of pasture, indicating the presence of associative effects in the rumen.

Milk response to concentrate supplementation of high producing dairy cows grazing at two pasture allowances.

Twenty multiparous Holstein cows (four ruminally cannulated) in five 4 x 4 Latin squares with 21-d periods were used to study the effect of concentrate supplementation when grazed at two pasture allowances. The four dietary treatments resulted from the combination of two pasture allowance targets (low, 25 vs. high, 40 kg of dry matter/cow per day) and two concentrate supplementation levels (zero vs. 1 kg of concentrate/4 kg of milk). Concentrate supplementation decreased pasture dry matter intake 2.0 kg/d at the low pasture allowance (17.5 vs. 15.5 kg/d) and 4.4 kg/d at the high pasture allowance (20.5 vs. 16.1 kg/d). Substitution rate was lower at the low pasture allowance (0.26 kg pasture/kg concentrate) than at the high pasture allowance (0.55 kg of pasture/kg of concentrate). Total dry matter intake of both supplemented treatments averaged 24.4 kg/d. Milk production of both supplemented treatments averaged 29.8 kg/d, but was increased with higher pasture allowance in the unsupplemented treatments (19.1 vs. 22.2 kg/d). Milk response to concentrate supplementation was 1.36 and 0.96 kg of milk/kg of concentrate for the low and high pasture allowances, respectively. Concentrate supplementation reduced milk fat percentage but increased milk protein percentage. Rumen pH and NH3-N concentration were decreased with concentrate supplementation. Substitution rate was likely related to both negative associative effects in the rumen (reductions in rumen pH, rate of pasture digestion, and NDF digestibility) and reductions in grazing time. The latter was more important, quantitatively explaining at least 80% of the reduction in pasture dry matter intake observed.

Ruminal digestion by dairy cows grazing winter oats pasture supplemented with different levels and sources of protein.

Six Holstein cows fitted with ruminal cannulae were used in two simultaneous 3 x 3 Latin squares to study the effects of protein supplements on ruminal fermentation and in situ crude protein degradability. Cows rotationally grazed a winter oats (Avena sativa L.) pasture and were supplemented with one of three concentrate supplements: 1) low protein sunflower meal (L-SM); 2) high protein sunflower meal (H-SM); or 3) high protein feather meal (H-FM). Concentrates (6.5 kg/d) were offered in equal portions twice daily during milking. Ruminal pH and total volatile fatty acids concentration were unaffected by treatments. Supplementation with L-SM and H-FM decreased ruminal NH3-N concentration compared with H-SM. The concentrate with feather meal had lower effective rumen degradability of crude protein than concentrates containing sunflower meal. Effective rumen degradability of crude protein of pasture averaged 82.7%. Thirty-six multiparous Holstein cows (71 d in milk) were used in a complementary experiment to study the effect of treatments on intake, milk yield, and milk composition. Pasture (13.2 kg/d) and total (19.6 kg/d) dry matter intake (estimated using Cr2O3 as fecal marker) and milk yield (20.5 kg/d) were unaffected by level or source of protein supplemented. Intake of rumen undegradable protein in grazing dairy cows was higher when the amount of sunflower meal was increased or when feather meal was used in the supplement. However, higher rumen undegradable protein intake did not increase milk production, suggesting that rumen undegradable protein was not limiting for cows on pasture producing less than 22 kg of milk.