Cyberbullying process in US adolescents and their parents: Testing and extending the Barlett Gentile cyberbullying model.

The purpose of the current research was to test the dual processes involved in predicting cyberbullying perpetration in a sample of US parent-child dyads. The Barlett Gentile cyberbullying model (BGCM) posits how positive cyberbullying attitudes mediate the relationship between anonymity perceptions and cyberbullying perpetration; however, less is known about (a) whether this mediated link is significant for youth and adults alike, (b) if the strength of the relationships in the BGCM differ between youth and adults, and (c) the role of child (or parent) perceptions of their parent's (or child's) cyberbullying behavior has on cyberbullying. Two hundred US parent-child dyads completed measures to assess cyberbullying perpetration, cyberbullying attitudes, cyberbullying perceptions, and anonymity perceptions. Results showed support for BGCM postulates for parents and adolescents; however, the mediated relationship was stronger for youth than adults. Moreover, cyberbullying perceptions correlated strongly with cyberbullying attitudes and cyberbullying perpetration. Results are discussed in terms of theory and intervention applications.

Examining the longitudinal direct and indirect relationships between early sleep (quality and duration) and later cyberbullying perpetration in emerging adults.

OBJECTIVES: Researchers have recently posited the importance of sleep as a predictor of cyberbullying perpetration. We aimed to fill several theoretical gaps in the literature. First, most of the research focuses on sleep quality and not duration. Second, most of the studies are correlational, limiting causal claims. Third, few studies have tested the theoretical mediators (anger, hostility, and self-control) in the relationship between sleep (quality and duration) and cyberbullying. METHODS: We employed short-term three-wave longitudinal study with US emerging adults (N = 182). At each wave participants completed measures of cyberbullying perpetration, anger, hostility, self-control, sleep quality, and sleep duration. RESULTS: Findings from our longitudinal path model showed that Wave 2 anger was the only significant mediator between Wave 1 sleep duration (not quality) and Wave 3 cyberbullying. CONCLUSIONS: We supported past research focused on the mediating role of anger in the relationship between sleep and cyberbullying, and theory that explicates the importance of mediators. Moreover, we contributed to this literature by employing a longitudinal design, assessing mediators, focusing on sleep duration and quality, and using an emerging adult population.

Racism behind the screen: Examining the mediating and moderating relationships between anonymity, online disinhibition, and cyber-racism.

Cyber-racism has emerged as a societal issue that affects many youths and adults; however, no published work has elucidated the psychological processes germane to predicting cyber-racism perpetration. Theory-without data to support its postulates-argues that online disinhibition mediates the relationship between anonymity afforded the online user and cyber-racism. The purpose of the current research was to examine this prediction and add to the theory by testing additional mediators and moderators. Six empirical studies tested this theory with U.S. adults, and results reliably showed that online disinhibition mediated the relationship between anonymity and cyber-racism. Moreover, we also found evidence to suggest that (a) this mediated effect remained while controlling for real-world variables, (b) the mediated effect was moderated by racial prejudice, (c) the mediated effect was moderated by cyberbullying perpetration, and (d) that certain types of online disinhibition are stronger mediators than others. Finally, Study 7 synthesized these six studies and found evidence for the mediating influence of online disinhibition in the relationship between anonymity and cyber-racism. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Predicting Cyberbullying Perpetration in US Elementary School Children.

Cyberbullying has emerged as a societal issue, and the majority of the research examining cyberbullying perpetration samples adolescent and/or emerging adult populations. A paucity of empirical attention has focused on young children (aged 8-10) regarding their cyberbullying frequency and predictors. The current study sampled 142 US youth aged 8-10 years and assessed their cyberbullying perpetration rate and cellular phone ownership. Results indicated that (a) older participants were more likely to cyberbully than their younger peers; (b) higher rates of cyberbullying were found for youth who already owned a cellular phone; and (c) an interaction between participant age and cellular phone ownership was found, suggesting that cyberbullying was highest for only the 10-year-old group who owned a cellular phone. These findings have implications for (a) parents, school administrators, health care providers, and anyone else interested in better understanding the predictors of cyberbullying perpetration; (b) intervention specialists focused on reducing cyberbullying in youth; and (c) a researcher interested in understanding the basic theoretical underpinnings of cyberbullying. Based on these findings, we recommend that (a) cyberbullying interventions be administered to youth as early as elementary school; (b) parents/guardians carefully consider the positive and negative consequences of youth cellular phone usage; and (c) increased communication between youth and parents/guardians concerning youth cellular phone activities.

Understanding Cyber-Racism Perpetration within the Broader Context of Cyberbullying Theory: A Theoretical Integration.

The purpose of the current theoretical review is to argue for the theoretical integration of cyber-racism perpetration into the broader cyberbullying context-making note of the similarities between both types of nefarious online behavior that make this integration appropriate and the differences that make the integration less clear. Cyber-racism and cyberbullying victimization have been shown to be prevalent in youth and is related to poor psychological outcomes. Understanding both types of antisocial online behaviors have implications for the understanding and subsequent reduction of cyber-racism. Our review focuses on a cyber-racism model that proposes the importance of anonymity perceptions afforded to the online user to cause cyber-racism via several routes that focus on (a) online disinhibition, (b) deindividuation and group polarization, and (c) stereotypes. We discuss the tenets of this theory and the overlap with the Barlett Gentile Cyberbullying Model-a learning-based model that focuses on how anonymity eventually predicts cyberbullying via the development of positive cyberbullying attitudes. We believe that theoretical integration is necessary; however, future work needs to test several theoretical underpinnings of these models first. We end with a discussion of theoretical and intervention implications before discussing limitations and future work. Overall, we hope this review sparks interesting future research to understand cyber-racism and broaden the existing research on cyberbullying.

Learning to cyberbully: Longitudinal relations between cyberbullying attitudes and perpetration and the moderating influence of participant sex: A brief report.

Scholars have contended that cyberbullying perpetration is a learned social behavior, and one way to show evidence for cyberbullying learning is to test the longitudinal reciprocal relationships between cyberbullying behavior and related cyberbullying-related cognitions (e.g., attitudes). A paucity of research has tested these learning tenets, and no research that we are aware of has examined the moderating role of sex. The current study used a two-wave longitudinal design with US youth. Participants completed measures of cyberbullying attitudes and perpetration. Results showed that early cyberbullying attitudes and behavior predicted later cyberbullying attitudes and behavior; however, and most importantly, sex moderated those relationships. Males had stronger longitudinal relationships than females. Results are interpreted regarding theory.

Cyberbullying as a Learned Behavior: Theoretical and Applied Implications.

Cyberbullying perpetration has emerged as a world-wide societal issue. Interventions need to be continuously updated to help reduce cyberbullying perpetration. We believe that data derived from theory can best accomplish this objective. Here, we argue for the importance of learning theory to understand cyberbullying perpetration. The purpose of this manuscript is to firstly describe the various learning theories that are applicable to describe cyberbullying perpetration, such as social learning, operant conditioning, the general learning model, and others. Second, we delve into the Barlett Gentile Cyberbullying Model, which integrates learning postulates and distinguishes cyber from traditional bullying. Finally, we offer a learning perspective on interventions and future research.

Thinking through situations: The mediating role of rumination in the relationship between need for cognition and aggression.

Need for cognition (NFC)-a stable personality trait associated with the enjoyment of thinking-has been shown to influence myriad social situations; however, no research has tested the direct and indirect effects of NFC on aggression. We predicted that NFC would negatively correlate with aggression, which would be mediated by rumination. Participants (N = 216 US adults) completed measures assessing NFC, aggression, and rumination. In line with our hypotheses, results showed that NFC was negatively correlated with aggression, and both anger rumination and more general rumination mediated this relationship. Future research and conclusions are discussed.

Muscles, popularity, social capital, and computer skills: Examining "power" in cyberbullying.

Traditional bullying perpetration explicates the importance of a power differential between the bully and the victim-predominantly physical and/or social status. The application of power from traditional to cyberbullying is unclear. The current research utilized a longitudinal study to examine the relationships between four different derivations of power-belief in the irrelevance of muscularity for online bullying (BIMOB), social capital, harmful computer skills, and popularity motivation-and cyberbullying attitudes and perpetration. Participants (185 US emerging adults) completed self-report assessments of the aforementioned power constructs, cyberbullying attitudes, and cyberbullying behavior twice-6 months apart. Results showed only Wave 1 BIMOB predicted cyberbullying attitudes to yield subsequent cyberbullying perpetration.

Victims of Cyberbullying: Feeling Loneliness and Depression among Youth and Adult Chileans during the Pandemic.

In Chile, during the COVID-19 pandemic, reports of cyberbullying victimization increased for adolescents and younger adults. Research has shown that cyber-victims-adolescents and young adults alike-are at greater risk for mental health problems such as depression as a result of this negative type of aggression. Yet, a paucity of research has examined the individual mechanisms germane to cyber-victim depression. We focused on loneliness for the current study. We hypothesized that cyber-victimization would be positively related to depressive symptoms through increased fears of loneliness and that this effect would differ between adolescents and younger adults. Thus, we examined a sample of 2370 participants from all main regions of Chile aged from 15 to 29 years. Moderated mediation results showed a negative effect of cyberbullying on depression, which was mediated by increased fears of being alone. The effect of frequency of cyberbullying on fear of loneliness was stronger for younger adults compared to adolescents. Our results suggest different mechanisms for both age groups, which can inform prevention programs and their specific activities.

Are mindful people less aggressive? The role of emotion regulation in the relations between mindfulness and aggression.

Inducing mindfulness has shown a promising effect on reducing aggression in both clinical and nonclinical populations, possibly because mindfulness can improve emotion regulation. The present study examined the association between mindfulness and aggression through potential mediating effects of several emotion regulation strategies. University and community samples of U.S. adults completed questionnaires on mindfulness, emotion regulation strategies, and trait aggression. Results indicate that mindfulness was associated with rumination and expressive suppression, which mediated the mindfulness-aggression relationship. Most facets of mindfulness were unrelated to the use of reflection and cognitive reappraisal. The nonjudging of experience facet of mindfulness was negatively related to hostility through rumination and expressive suppression. In contrast, the observing mindfulness facet was positively related to verbal aggression and hostility; these relations were mediated by rumination and expressive suppression.

Theoretically Predicting Cyberbullying Perpetration in Youth With the BGCM: Unique Challenges and Promising Research Opportunities.

The psychological variables and processes germane to cyberbullying need additional empirical attention-especially for adolescent samples. Myriad studies and meta-analytic reviews have confirmed the deleterious psychological and behavioral consequences of being cyber-victimized. We argue that one method to curtail such effects is to inform interventions aimed at reducing cyberbullying perpetration regarding the why and for whom cyberbullying is likely. This review expands on these issues and emphasizes the Barlett Gentile Cyberbullying Model (BGCM) as the only validated cyberbullying-specific theory to predict cyberbullying perpetration. Our principal thesis is that the wealth of research validating the BGCM has been with adult samples and applying the BGCM to adolescents presents both challenging and exciting research opportunities for future research and intervention development in youth.

Comparing cyberbullying prevalence and process before and during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The psychological consequences of the global COVID-19 pandemic are just now starting to be understood; however, the behavioral consequences are less understood. Thus, the current report examined whether cyberbullying processes and frequency are affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. We compared US adult participant data from six months before the start of the pandemic (July 2019; n = 181) to data collected in the middle of the pandemic (May, 2020; n = 173) to determine if there are any significant differences in anonymity perceptions, belief in the irrelevance of muscularity for online bullying (BIMOB), cyberbullying attitudes, and cyberbullying perpetration. Results showed that there were significant increases in BIMOB, cyberbullying attitudes, and cyberbullying perpetration during the pandemic, but no significant change for anonymity perceptions. Further, the relationships between several variables germane to cyberbullying perpetration prediction were stronger during the pandemic than before. Overall, these findings add to our understanding of the behavioral impact the COVID-19 pandemic has on US adults.

Cyberbullying perpetration in the COVID-19 era: An application of general strain theory.

The world is currently grappling with the medical, psychological, economic, and behavioral consequences of the COVID-19 global pandemic. The existing research has rightly been focused on the medical contributions - treatment, symptoms, prevalence, etc. - which are paramount. A paucity of research has tested the psychological and behavioral consequences of COVID-19. In two cross-sectional studies of US adults, we posited that personal (e.g., being diagnosed with COVID-19) and proximal (e.g., knowing people with COVID-19) experiences with COVID-19 would be related to cyberbullying perpetration due to an increase in stress. Using path modeling, results showed that (a) personal and proximal COVID-19 experiences positively correlated with cyberbullying (Studies 1 and 2) and (b) personal COVID-19 experiences were indirectly related to cyberbullying through stress, but not proximal experiences (Study 2).

Bounded Blame: The Effects of Victim-Perpetrator Relationship and Victimization History on Judgments of Sexual Violence.

Individuals often tend to irrationally blame victims for their plight. This research incorporated a bounded rationality framework to examine first-person perspectives (rather than third-person) of both victims' and nonvictims' perceptions and judgments of acquaintance and stranger sexual violence. Upon completing individual difference measures, including a just-world belief assessment, participants (N = 296) were randomly assigned to read a scenario in which the vignette victim was either acquainted with or had no prior relationship with the perpetrator. Then, taking the perspective of the vignette victim, participants offered four judgments: the likelihood of reporting the crime, self-blame, perceived control, and sympathy expected from others. Results showed that instances of acquaintance sexual violence were judged more negatively than instances of stranger sexual violence. Moreover, participants who had previously experienced sexual violence reported more negative judgments than nonvictims (except for sympathy expected from others). An exploratory path analysis indicated that as nonvictims', but not victims', just-world beliefs became stronger, they indicated a higher willingness to report the crime, perceived more control over the situation, and expected more sympathy from others. We end with a discussion of how the present research can advance our understanding of sexual violence by using a bounded rationality framework and discuss the practical implications that the observed effects have for professionals in the legal system, outside observers, and victims themselves.

Cross-cultural similarities and differences in the theoretical predictors of cyberbullying perpetration: Results from a seven-country study.

The Barlett Gentile cyberbullying model (BGCM) posits that correlated anonymity perceptions and the belief in the irrelevance of muscularity for online bullying (BIMOB) predict positive cyberbullying attitudes to predict subsequent cyberbullying perpetration. Much research has shown the BGCM to be the only published theory that differentiates traditional and cyberbullying while validly predicting cyberbullying. So far, however, the cross-cultural ubiquity has gone understudied. Thus, 1,592 adult participants across seven countries (USA, Australia, Brazil, China, Germany, Japan, and Singapore) completed measures germane to the BGCM. Supporting the BGCM, the variables were significantly correlated for the entire sample, participants from independent cultures, and participants from interdependent cultures. However, the relationship between BIMOB and positive cyberbullying attitudes as well as the relationship between positive cyberbullying attitudes and cyberbullying perpetration were stronger for independent cultures. These results suggest that the BGCM postulates are mostly universal, but several relations appear to be culturally different. Theoretical implications are discussed.

The Influence of the Opposite Sex on Hypothetical Aggressive Inclinations.

Previous research has supported the hypothesis that the presence of a potential mate influences social behavior; however, there is a paucity of work that has extended this to the study of aggression. Thus, the current research had participants (N = 1,035) view a picture of an attractive or unattractive member of the opposite sex. Participants then imagined themselves in front of the imagined person in a social setting in which they were provoked or not before completing an assessment of aggressive intentions. Results from the 2 (sex of participant) × 2 (attractiveness of the picture) × 2 (provocation or not) analysis of variance showed that males viewing an image of an attractive female had higher aggressive intentions when provoked than males viewing a nonattractive female; however, these effects were not found for female participants.

Parenting and Cyberbullying Across Adolescence.

Cyberbullying perpetration continues to be a prevalent and harmful phenomenon. Despite the recent wealth of studies that examine cyberbullying frequency, further research is needed to investigate protective factors or variables that decrease the likelihood of engaging in cyberbullying perpetration. Past work has identified certain types of parenting as a potential protective factor against adolescent cyberbullying perpetration; however, there is a paucity of research testing these relations over time. This study explores parenting during early adolescence as predicting attitudes and behaviors associated with cyberbullying in late adolescence. Data were derived from the Flourishing Families Project (FFP) at Wave 2 (M age = 12) and Wave 9 (M age = 19). Results suggest that the authoritative parenting style-specifically the warmth and support dimension-was associated with less supportive attitudes toward cyberbullying and lower levels of cyberbullying in emerging adulthood. Moreover, particularly for boys, authoritarian parenting behaviors served as a risk factor for cyberbullying engagement. Suggestions are offered to advocate for greater positive parenting education during early adolescence as a potential protective factor against cyberbullying.

Longitudinal Relations among Cyber, Physical, and Relational Bullying and Victimization: Comparing Majority and Minority Ethnic Youth.

Findings from myriad studies have shown that cyberbullying perpetration is significantly positively correlated with relational and physical bullying perpetration in youth. Furthermore, similar trends have been found for victimization type. Despite the wealth of research testing the predictors of both cyberbullying perpetration and victimization, few studies have tested whether belonging to an ethnic minority moderates these effects. The current study sampled 828 youth in the United States. All participants completed measures of cyber, relational, and physical bullying perpetration and victimization two times during the school year. We classified youth into majority (Caucasian) and minority (non-Caucasian) groups based on the ethnicity makeup of the sample. Results showed that majority participants reported less physical bullying, more physical victimization at Time 1, more cyberbullying perpetration at Time 1, more frequency cyberbullying victimization at both data collection times, and higher relational victimization at Time 1. Subsequent longitudinal grouped path model results showed that participant group status (majority vs. minority ethnicity) moderated the relation between Time 1 physical bullying and Time 2 cyberbullying perpetration, the relationship between Time 1 cybervictimization and Time 2 cyberbullying, and the relationship between Time 1 relational victimization and cyber victimization We believe these results highlight the importance of testing ethnicity as a potential moderator in the literature examining predictors of both cyber bullying perpetration and victimization.

Piecing together the aggression puzzle: Testing the mediating variables linking early to later aggression.

Results from several studies show that early aggression predicts later aggression; however, few studies have examined the mediating mechanisms in these relations. The paucity of research that has tested mediation found that aggressive motives and hostile attributions are important causal processes. This past work is limited by not measuring aggression multiple times throughout the study to test aggression change over time and the variables that mediate such change. The current study had participants (N = 90) interact with a same-sex confederate on a modified version of the Tangram Task-our measure of aggressive behavior-for three trials. At each trial, participants completed a measure of aggressive motivations, assigned tangram puzzles for their partner to solve, were provoked (or not) by their ostensible partner, and then completed an assessment of aggressive attributions regarding their partner's behavior. Results showed that, for provoked participants, the relation between Time 1 aggressive attributions predicted Time 3 aggressive behavior through the following temporal mediated pathway: Time 2 aggressive attributions, Time 2 aggressive behavior, and Time 3 aggressive motivations.