ABSTRACT
Group A flavin-dependent monooxygenases catalyze the cleavage of the oxygen-oxygen bond of dioxygen, followed by the incorporation of one oxygen atom into the substrate molecule with the aid of NADPH and FAD. These flavoenzymes play an important role in many biological processes, and their most distinct structural feature is the choreographed motions of flavin, which typically adopts two distinct conformations (OUT and IN) to fulfill its function. Notably, these enzymes seem to have evolved a delicate control system to avoid the futile cycle of NADPH oxidation and FAD reduction in the absence of substrate, but the molecular basis of this system remains elusive. Using protein crystallography, size-exclusion chromatography coupled to multi-angle light scattering (SEC-MALS), and small-angle X-ray scattering (SEC-SAXS) and activity assay, we report here a structural and biochemical characterization of PieE, a member of the Group A flavin-dependent monooxygenases involved in the biosynthesis of the antibiotic piericidin A1. This analysis revealed that PieE forms a unique hexamer. Moreover, we found, to the best of our knowledge for the first time, that in addition to the classical OUT and IN conformations, FAD possesses a "sliding" conformation that exists in between the OUT and IN conformations. This observation sheds light on the underlying mechanism of how the signal of substrate binding is transmitted to the FAD-binding site to efficiently initiate NADPH binding and FAD reduction. Our findings bridge a gap currently missing in the orchestrated order of chemical events catalyzed by this important class of enzymes.
Subject(s)
Bacterial Proteins/chemistry , Mixed Function Oxygenases/chemistry , Streptomyces/enzymology , Bacterial Proteins/genetics , Bacterial Proteins/metabolism , Binding Sites , Biocatalysis , Crystallography, X-Ray , Flavin-Adenine Dinucleotide/chemistry , Flavin-Adenine Dinucleotide/metabolism , Mixed Function Oxygenases/genetics , Mixed Function Oxygenases/metabolism , Molecular Dynamics Simulation , Mutagenesis, Site-Directed , NADP/chemistry , NADP/metabolism , Oxidation-Reduction , Protein Binding , Protein Multimerization , Protein Structure, Tertiary , Pyridines/metabolism , Scattering, Small Angle , Substrate Specificity , X-Ray DiffractionABSTRACT
Substrate salvage or recycling is common and important for primary metabolism in cells but is rare in secondary metabolism. Herein we report flavoenzyme CrmK-mediated shunt product recycling in the biosynthesis of caerulomycin A (CRM A 1), a 2,2'-bipyridine-containing natural product that is under development as a potent novel immunosuppressive agent. We demonstrated that the alcohol oxidase CrmK, belonging to the family of bicovalent FAD-binding flavoproteins, catalyzed the conversion of an alcohol into a carboxylate via an aldehyde. The CrmK-mediated reactions were not en route to 1 biosynthesis but played an unexpectedly important role by recycling shunt products back to the main pathway of 1. Crystal structures and site-directed mutagenesis studies uncovered key residues for FAD-binding, substrate binding and catalytic activities, enabling the proposal for the CrmK catalytic mechanism. This study provides the first biochemical and structural evidence for flavoenzyme-mediated substrate recycling in secondary metabolism.
