Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction, allergy and sports in children.

Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) is characterized by the narrowing of airways during or after physical activity, leading to symptoms such as wheezing, coughing, and shortness of breath. Distinguishing between EIB and exercise-induced asthma (EIA) is essential, given their divergent therapeutic and prognostic considerations. EIB has been increasingly recognized as a significant concern in pediatric athletes. Moreover, studies indicate a noteworthy prevalence of EIB in children with atopic predispositions, unveiling a potential link between allergic sensitivities and exercise-induced respiratory symptoms, underpinned by an inflammatory reaction caused by mechanical, environmental, and genetic factors. Holistic management of EIB in children necessitates a correct diagnosis and a combination of pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions. This review delves into the latest evidence concerning EIB in the pediatric population, exploring its associations with atopy and sports, and emphasizing the appropriate diagnostic and therapeutic approaches by highlighting various clinical scenarios.

Fatal food anaphylaxis in adults and children.

Anaphylaxis is a life-threatening reaction characterized by the acute onset of symptoms involving different organ systems and requiring immediate medical intervention. The incidence of fatal food anaphylaxis is 0.03 to 0.3 million/people/year. Most fatal food-induced anaphylaxis occurs in the second and third decades of life. The identified risk factors include the delayed use of epinephrine, the presence of asthma, the use of recreational drugs (alcohol, nicotine, cannabis, etc.), and an upright position. In the United Kingdom (UK) and Canada, the reported leading causal foods are peanuts and tree nuts. In Italy, milk seems to be the most common cause of fatal anaphylaxis in children < 18 years. Fatal food anaphylaxis in Italian children and adolescents almost always occurs outside and is characterized by cardiorespiratory arrest; auto-injectable adrenaline intramuscular was available in few cases. Mortality from food anaphylaxis, especially in children, is a very rare event with stable incidence, but its risk deeply impacts the quality of life of patients with food allergy and their families. Prevention of fatal food anaphylaxis must involve patients and their families, as well as the general public, public authorities, and patients' associations.

The importance of clinical history in the diagnosis of drug hypersensitivity in children.

BACKGROUND: In case of suspected hypersensitivity reactions (HRs) to drugs, a challenging area for pediatricians is detecting relevant elements in the parent-reported history, in order to reach a definite diagnosis. We analyzed the concordance between the description of the HR and the medical reports documented at the time of the event. Furthermore, we studied any correlation between clinical history variables and the prediction of true allergy. METHODS: We retrospectively collected 50 charts of children referred to our Allergy Unit, after a previous access to the Emergency Department. We compared the description of the HR at acute phase to the history told by parents. Type and timing of the HR and culprit drug were classified as "known" or "unknown." The diagnosis was confirmed or excluded at the end of the investigations. Logistic regression analysis was performed to find any significant association. RESULTS: The type of the HR was known in 74%, the timing in 28%, and the culprit drug in 98%. We showed that having had a severe HR had an increased odds of remembering the timing; being older >6 years and having had an immediate HR had an increased odds of remembering the type; time to diagnostic was lower in patients whose parents remembered the type of HR. CONCLUSION: Our paper underlines the importance of an accurate anamnesis at the time of the event. Providing the physicians with a standardized Case Report Form could be a useful tool to simplify the diagnostic work-up and minimize mistakes due to lack of memory.

Imported allergens in Italy: an emerging issue.

Imported allergens are involved in many allergic reactions, with unexpected and unusual implications. They can be involved in developing asthma, allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, Hymenoptera venom allergies and food allergies. Imported allergens can be implied in respiratory allergies attributable to commercial practices and accidental diffusion through air currents that have introduced non-native species in new geographical contexts. Ambrosia artemisiifolia L., a plant native to North America and currently in the western part of Lombardy, represents an example. Moreover, a variation in the pollen concentration in the Northwest Tuscany area and Trentino Alto-Adige was observed. Cannabis sativa is another imported allergen used frequently by adolescents. Regarding potential imported food allergens, there is no validated list. Imported food allergens derive from ethnic foods, referring to Mexican/Latin American, Chinese/Japanese, Southeast Asian, Arab/Middle Eastern and African cuisine. Four insect flours were recently introduced to the European and Italian markets (Acheta domesticus, Alphitobius diaperinus, Tenebrio molitor and Locusta migratoria). The association between the accidental introduction through commercial traffic, climate change, and the absence of natural enemies in the destination ecosystem is related to the introduction of a specific Hymenoptera, Vespa velutina, in Italy and Europe. External events attributable to human activities, such as climate change and the introduction of non-native plants, foods and Hymenoptera through trade, have contributed to the issue of imported allergens. Making the correct diagnosis and guiding the diagnostic and therapeutic path in this particular context represent the concerns of the pediatric allergist.

How to manage drug-virus interplay underlying skin eruptions in children.

The majority of viral rashes occurring during an antibiotic therapy are considered as a drug hypersensitivity reaction (DHR). Differentiating a viral rash versus a DHR is difficult or even impossible. In delayed DHRs the interplay between viruses and drugs is summarized according to the recent literature. The question is if the same reaction will again occur in case of drug re-exposure in absence of the concomitant viral infection because of persistent immune reactivity. Epstein Barr Virus (EBV) and Human Herpes virus 6 (HHV-6) models are analyzed in case of maculopapular exanthemas (MPEs) and drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS) over a course of drug therapy. MPEs are the most common skin manifestation during a viral infection and a concomitant drug therapy. In type IVb reactions to drugs a hapten/pro-hapten mechanism and a pharmacological interaction (p-i mechanism) are described as the 2 major ways to make T cells response functional. Rarely the altered repertoire model is involved. The Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) predisposition is an additional essential factor that can facilitate DHR. In MPEs rarely a DHR is confirmed by allergy testing. Severity and duration of MPEs, the presence of eosinophilia and systemic symptoms make more reliable the persistent nature of the reaction. Research on this topic is needed in order to provide the clinicians with instruments to decide when to suspect future reactions upon drug re-exposure even in the absence of a viral infection, because those patients should be investigated by a complete drug allergy work up.

Cold Anaphylaxis in Children: Italian Case Series and Review of the Literature.

Chronic urticaria (CU) is one of the most common skin disorders worldwide. Among the inducible subgroup of CU, cold urticaria (ColdU) can affect both children and adults and is the only type associated with the risk of anaphylaxis without cofactors. In the scientific literature, data about cold anaphylaxis (ColdA) are poor, especially at pediatric age, and little is known about risk factors associated with the onset of systemic reactions and about the criteria for prescribing adrenaline auto-injectors (AAIs) in these patients. We describe the clinical characteristics and management of a case series of 21 patients with a history of ColdA, and we compare them with the pediatric case reports and case series published so far. On the basis of the scientific literature and of our case series of patients, we suggest that AAI should be prescribed to all high-risk patients: those with urticaria caused by cold-water immersion, oropharyngeal reactions, and with a previous history of systemic symptoms or anaphylaxis.

EAACI guidelines on the diagnosis of IgE-mediated food allergy.

This European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology guideline provides recommendations for diagnosing IgE-mediated food allergy and was developed using the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations (GRADE) approach. Food allergy diagnosis starts with an allergy-focused clinical history followed by tests to determine IgE sensitization, such as serum allergen-specific IgE (sIgE) and skin prick test (SPT), and the basophil activation test (BAT), if available. Evidence for IgE sensitization should be sought for any suspected foods. The diagnosis of allergy to some foods, such as peanut and cashew nut, is well supported by SPT and serum sIgE, whereas there are less data and the performance of these tests is poorer for other foods, such as wheat and soya. The measurement of sIgE to allergen components such as Ara h 2 from peanut, Cor a 14 from hazelnut and Ana o 3 from cashew can be useful to further support the diagnosis, especially in pollen-sensitized individuals. BAT to peanut and sesame can be used additionally. The reference standard for food allergy diagnosis is the oral food challenge (OFC). OFC should be performed in equivocal cases. For practical reasons, open challenges are suitable in most cases. Reassessment of food allergic children with allergy tests and/or OFCs periodically over time will enable reintroduction of food into the diet in the case of spontaneous acquisition of oral tolerance.

Allergic Proctocolitis: Literature Review and Proposal of a Diagnostic-Therapeutic Algorithm.

Allergic proctocolitis (AP) is a benign condition, frequent in childhood, that is classified as a non-IgE-mediated food allergy. The prevalence is unknown; however, its frequency appears to be increasing, especially in exclusively breastfed infants. Clinical manifestations typically begin in the first few months of life with the appearance of bright red blood (hematochezia), with or without mucus, in the stool of apparently healthy, thriving infants. Most cases of AP are caused by cow's milk proteins; however, other allergens, such as soy, egg, corn, and wheat, may be potential triggers. Diagnosis is based on the patient's clinical history and on the resolution of signs and symptoms with the elimination of the suspected food antigen from the diet and their reappearance when the food is reintroduced into the diet. The treatment of AP is based on an elimination diet of the trigger food, with resolution of the symptoms within 72-96 h from the beginning of the diet. The prognosis of AP is good; it is a self-limiting condition, because most children can tolerate the trigger food within one year of life, with an excellent long-term prognosis. The purpose of this review is to provide an update on the current knowledge and recommendations in epidemiological, diagnostic, and therapeutic terms to the pediatricians, allergists, and gastroenterologists who may find themselves managing a patient with AP.

IgE-Mediated and Non-IgE-Mediated Fish Allergy in Pediatric Age: A Holistic Approach-A Consensus by Diagnostic Commission of the Italian Society of Pediatric Allergy and Immunology.

Fish is one of the "big nine" foods triggering allergic reactions. For this reason, fish allergens must be accurately specified on food labels. Fish allergy affects less than 1% of the world population, but a higher prevalence is observed in pediatric cohorts, up to 7%. Parvalbumin is the main fish allergen found in the muscles. In childhood, sensitization to fish allergens occurs most frequently through the ingestion of fish, rarely transcutaneously or by inhalation. Fish allergy symptoms usually appear within two hours of the allergen contact. The diagnosis begins with the collection of the history. If it is suggestive of fish allergy, prick tests or the measurement of serum-specific IgE should be performed to confirm the suspicion. The oral food challenge is the gold standard for the diagnosis. It is not recommended in case of a severe allergic reaction. It is important to make a differential diagnosis with anisakiasis or scombroid poisoning, which have overlapping clinical features but differ in pathogenesis. Traditionally, managing fish allergy involves avoiding the triggering species (sometimes all bony fish species) and requires an action plan for accidental exposures. The present review will analyze IgE- and non-IgE-mediated fish allergy in children from epidemiology, pathogenesis to clinical features. Moreover, clinical management will be addressed with a particular focus on potential nutritional deficiencies.

Food Protein-induced Enterocolitis Syndrome Due to Cuttlefish in a Child with Anaphylaxis to Crustaceans.

Shellfish is defined as any edible marine invertebrate and refers to crustaceans and mollusks. Crustaceans belong to the phylum Arthropods. Mollusks belong to the phylum Mollusca. This report illustrates a rare case of a 6-year-old girl with challenge-proven acute food protein-induced enterocolitis syndrome (FPIES) to cuttlefish (phylum Mollusca, class Cephalopoda), anaphylaxis to crustaceans (phylum Arthropoda), and tolerance to other mollusks, including clams and mussels (phylum Mollusca, class Bivalvia). The association of IgE-mediated food allergy and acute FPIES seen in this case is rare. To our knowledge, this is the first case of FPIES to cuttlefish reported in a child. This challenge highlights the need for further research into the allergens and mechanisms underpinning FPIES at a molecular level, enabling a better understanding of cross-reactivity patterns and the development of diagnostic and predictive tests to assist in clinical practice.

Pearls and Pitfalls of Weaning an Infant with Severe Atopic Dermatitis and Sensitization/Allergy to Food.

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a common chronic inflammatory skin disorder in childhood. Skin barrier impairment exposes infants to food allergens, potentially causing sensitization followed by IgE-mediated food allergy. We describe the case of an infant with severe AD in whom several sensitizations to foods are detected, with consequently difficult weaning, and a history of anaphylaxis to cashew nut. Foods for which skin tests were negative were introduced into the infant's diet. Then, when AD control was managed, oral food challenges (OFCs) for foods to which the patient was sensitized, with the exception of cashew nut, were performed. The simultaneous presence of sensitization toward multiple foods made it difficult to introduce them using classic OFC. Therefore, it was decided to perform the low-dose, gradual controlled OFC. This led to an introduction of sensitized foods into the infant's diet, with the exception of cashew nut, avoiding allergic reactions. Absolute recommendations on how, when, and where to perform OFCs with allergenic food to which the child with AD is sensitized are lacking so far. In our opinion, OFCs and the subsequent ntroduction of allergenic foods should be individualized, evaluating some factors such as their social and nutritional importance, the patient's age and clinical phenotype (including the history of anaphylaxis), and the sensitization profile. There is agreement on the fact that the dietary approach in children with moderate-severe AD should no longer include a strict elimination diet. We believe that an early, gradual controlled introduction of all allergenics to identify the amount of food tolerated in the absence of reactions, even if low dose, may improve patients' and families' quality of life. However, even if discussing a vast relevant literature, the limitation of our work is that we describe the management of a single patient. Extensive and high-quality research is needed in this field to improve the available evidence in the area.

IgE-Mediated Shellfish Allergy in Children.

Shellfish, including various species of mollusks (e.g., mussels, clams, and oysters) and crustaceans (e.g., shrimp, prawn, lobster, and crab), have been a keystone of healthy dietary recommendations due to their valuable protein content. In parallel with their consumption, allergic reactions related to shellfish may be increasing. Adverse reactions to shellfish are classified into different groups: (1) Immunological reactions, including IgE and non-IgE allergic reactions; (2) non-immunological reactions, including toxic reactions and food intolerance. The IgE-mediated reactions occur within about two hours after ingestion of the shellfish and range from urticaria, angioedema, nausea, and vomiting to respiratory signs and symptoms such as bronchospasm, laryngeal oedema, and anaphylaxis. The most common allergenic proteins involved in IgE-mediated allergic reactions to shellfish include tropomyosin, arginine kinase, myosin light chain, sarcoplasmic calcium-binding protein, troponin c, and triosephosphate isomerase. Over the past decades, the knowledge gained on the identification of the molecular features of different shellfish allergens improved the diagnosis and the potential design of allergen immunotherapy for shellfish allergy. Unfortunately, immunotherapeutic studies and some diagnostic tools are still restricted in a research context and need to be validated before being implemented into clinical practice. However, they seem promising for improving management strategies for shellfish allergy. In this review, epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical features, diagnosis, and management of shellfish allergies in children are presented. The cross-reactivity among different forms of shellfish and immunotherapeutic approaches, including unmodified allergens, hypoallergens, peptide-based, and DNA-based vaccines, are also addressed.

Eruption of Permanent Teeth As Risk Factor for Allergic Reactions During Oral Immunotherapy.

Background: Oral immunotherapy (OIT) increases the threshold of reaction in children older than 4 years with food allergy. The risk for severe allergic reactions (ARs) during OIT has been reported in several studies, often in the presence of concomitant cofactors such as physical exercise, empty stomach, medications, poorly controlled asthma, menses, and alcohol consumption. Cases Presentation: We describe a case series of 5 scholar age patients undergoing OIT who showed ARs to a known, previously tolerated dose of allergen during permanent tooth eruption, in which other known cofactors were excluded. Conclusions: Patients may be exposed to cofactors due to behavioral habits not only in the second and third decades of life, but also in the first decade of life, due to the timing of mixed dentition. More studies are needed to estimate the frequency and entity of tooth eruption as cofactor, as well as to know the correct management of children undergoing dentition during OIT.