Adaptive evolution of Moniliophthora PR-1 proteins towards its pathogenic lifestyle.

BACKGROUND: Plant pathogenesis related-1 (PR-1) proteins belong to the CAP superfamily and have been characterized as markers of induced defense against pathogens. Moniliophthora perniciosa and Moniliophthora roreri are hemibiotrophic fungi that respectively cause the witches' broom disease and frosty pod rot in Theobroma cacao. Interestingly, a large number of plant PR-1-like genes are present in the genomes of both species and many are up-regulated during the biotrophic interaction. In this study, we investigated the evolution of PR-1 proteins from 22 genomes of Moniliophthora isolates and 16 other Agaricales species, performing genomic investigation, phylogenetic reconstruction, positive selection search and gene expression analysis. RESULTS: Phylogenetic analysis revealed conserved PR-1 genes (PR-1a, b, d, j), shared by many Agaricales saprotrophic species, that have diversified in new PR-1 genes putatively related to pathogenicity in Moniliophthora (PR-1f, g, h, i), as well as in recent specialization cases within M. perniciosa biotypes (PR-1c, k, l) and M. roreri (PR-1n). PR-1 families in Moniliophthora with higher evolutionary rates exhibit induced expression in the biotrophic interaction and positive selection clues, supporting the hypothesis that these proteins accumulated adaptive changes in response to host-pathogen arms race. Furthermore, although previous work showed that MpPR-1 can detoxify plant antifungal compounds in yeast, we found that in the presence of eugenol M. perniciosa differentially expresses only MpPR-1e, k, d, of which two are not linked to pathogenicity, suggesting that detoxification might not be the main function of most MpPR-1. CONCLUSIONS: Based on analyses of genomic and expression data, we provided evidence that the evolution of PR-1 in Moniliophthora was adaptive and potentially related to the emergence of the parasitic lifestyle in this genus. Additionally, we also discuss how fungal PR-1 proteins could have adapted from basal conserved functions to possible roles in fungal pathogenesis.

Biochemical characterization and inhibition of the alternative oxidase enzyme from the fungal phytopathogen Moniliophthora perniciosa.

Moniliophthora perniciosa is a fungal pathogen and causal agent of the witches' broom disease of cocoa, a threat to the chocolate industry and to the economic and social security in cocoa-planting countries. The membrane-bound enzyme alternative oxidase (MpAOX) is crucial for pathogen survival; however a lack of information on the biochemical properties of MpAOX hinders the development of novel fungicides. In this study, we purified and characterised recombinant MpAOX in dose-response assays with activators and inhibitors, followed by a kinetic characterization both in an aqueous environment and in physiologically-relevant proteoliposomes. We present structure-activity relationships of AOX inhibitors such as colletochlorin B and analogues which, aided by an MpAOX structural model, indicates key residues for protein-inhibitor interaction. We also discuss the importance of the correct hydrophobic environment for MpAOX enzymatic activity. We envisage that such results will guide the future development of AOX-targeting antifungal agents against M. perniciosa, an important outcome for the chocolate industry.

Plant pathogenesis-related proteins of the cacao fungal pathogen Moniliophthora perniciosa differ in their lipid-binding specificities.

Moniliophthora perniciosa is the causative agent of witches' broom disease, which devastates cacao cultures in South America. This pathogenic fungus infects meristematic tissues and derives nutrients from the plant apoplast during an unusually long-lasting biotrophic stage. To survive, the fungus produces proteins to suppress the plant immune response. Proteins of the PR-1 (pathogenesis-related 1)/CAP superfamily have been implicated in fungal virulence and immune suppression. The genome of M. perniciosa encodes 11 homologues of plant PR-1 proteins, designated MpPR-1 proteins, but their precise mode of action is poorly understood. In this study, we expressed MpPR-1 proteins in a yeast model lacking endogenous CAP proteins. We show that some members of the MpPR-1 family bind and promote secretion of sterols, whereas others bind and promote secretion of fatty acids. Lipid binding by purified MpPR-1 occurs with micromolar affinity and is saturable in vitro Sterol binding by MpPR-1 requires the presence of a flexible loop region containing aromatic amino acids, the caveolin-binding motif. Remarkably, MpPR-1 family members that do not bind sterols can be converted to sterol binders by a single point mutation in the caveolin-binding motif. We discuss the possible implications of the lipid-binding activity of MpPR-1 family members with regard to the mode of action of these proteins during M. perniciosa infections.

Crystal Structure of MpPR-1i, a SCP/TAPS protein from Moniliophthora perniciosa, the fungus that causes Witches' Broom Disease of Cacao.

The pathogenic fungi Moniliophthora perniciosa causes Witches' Broom Disease (WBD) of cacao. The structure of MpPR-1i, a protein expressed by M. perniciosa when it infects cacao, are presented. This is the first reported de novo structure determined by single-wavelength anomalous dispersion phasing upon soaking with selenourea. Each monomer has flexible loop regions linking the core alpha-beta-alpha sandwich topology that comprise ~50% of the structure, making it difficult to generate an accurate homology model of the protein. MpPR-1i is monomeric in solution but is packed as a high ~70% solvent content, crystallographic heptamer. The greatest conformational flexibility between monomers is found in loops exposed to the solvent channel that connect the two longest strands. MpPR-1i lacks the conserved CAP tetrad and is incapable of binding divalent cations. MpPR-1i has the ability to bind lipids, which may have roles in its infection of cacao. These lipids likely bind in the palmitate binding cavity as observed in tablysin-15, since MpPR-1i binds palmitate with comparable affinity as tablysin-15. Further studies are required to clarify the possible roles and underlying mechanisms of neutral lipid binding, as well as their effects on the pathogenesis of M. perniciosa so as to develop new interventions for WBD.

The fungal pathogen Moniliophthora perniciosa has genes similar to plant PR-1 that are highly expressed during its interaction with cacao.

The widespread SCP/TAPS superfamily (SCP/Tpx-1/Ag5/PR-1/Sc7) has multiple biological functions, including roles in the immune response of plants and animals, development of male reproductive tract in mammals, venom activity in insects and reptiles and host invasion by parasitic worms. Plant Pathogenesis Related 1 (PR-1) proteins belong to this superfamily and have been characterized as markers of induced defense against pathogens. This work presents the characterization of eleven genes homologous to plant PR-1 genes, designated as MpPR-1, which were identified in the genome of Moniliophthora perniciosa, a basidiomycete fungus responsible for causing the devastating witches' broom disease in cacao. We describe gene structure, protein alignment and modeling analyses of the MpPR-1 family. Additionally, the expression profiles of MpPR-1 genes were assessed by qPCR in different stages throughout the fungal life cycle. A specific expression pattern was verified for each member of the MpPR-1 family in the conditions analyzed. Interestingly, some of them were highly and specifically expressed during the interaction of the fungus with cacao, suggesting a role for the MpPR-1 proteins in the infective process of this pathogen. Hypothetical functions assigned to members of the MpPR-1 family include neutralization of plant defenses, antimicrobial activity to avoid competitors and fruiting body physiology. This study provides strong evidence on the importance of PR-1-like genes for fungal virulence on plants.