Nonverbal face-to-face interactions in macaques and humans: A translational pilot study.

Human and nonhuman primate mother-infant dyads engage in face-to-face interactions critical for optimal infant development. In semi-free-ranging rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta), maternal primiparity and infant sex influence the expression of nonverbal face-to-face mother-infant interactions. However, whether similar patterns of variation exist in laboratory-housed macaques or human mothers is not well understood. Comparing both species would yield information regarding the translational validity of macaques to humans in this important social/developmental domain. In this pilot study, we first compared semi-free-ranging (n = 39) and laboratory-housed (n = 20) macaques, finding that laboratory-housed dyads, first-time mothers, and mothers of sons engaged in higher rates of face-to-face interactions regardless of housing. After translating the nonhuman primate coding scheme for use in a small but diverse group of human mother-infant dyads (N = 27; 44.4% African American, 18.5% American Indian, 7.4% Asian/Asian American, and 29.6% White), we found that, like macaques, human mothers of sons engaged in more face-to-face interactions; however, experienced (vs. first-time) mothers engaged in more interactions. Macaques and humans also engaged in species-specific interactions with their infants. We conclude that components of caregiver-infant nonverbal face-to-face interactions are translatable across human and nonhuman primate species and represent an exciting avenue for future caregiving work.

Emotion regulation strategies and perceived stress during pregnancy in expectant mothers and fathers.

BACKGROUND: Stress during pregnancy can increase physical and mental health risks in parents and offspring. Emotion regulation (ER) may protect against prenatal stress; however, ER is understudied in expectant parents, particularly expectant fathers. This study aimed to evaluate associations between ER strategies (reappraisal, suppression, ratio of suppression-to-reappraisal) and perceived stress among expectant parents, and also test whether expectant mothers and fathers differed in ER strategy use and perceived stress levels. METHODS: N = 83 expectant parents (62.7% mothers) in the third trimester completed measures assessing perceived stress,reappraisal, and suppression. ANCOVA, hierarchical regression, and multilevel models were used to evaluate associations between ER strategies and perceived stress, and test for sex differences. RESULTS: Controlling for age and education, lower reappraisal and higher suppression were associated with higher perceived stress; in addition, higher suppression-to-reappraisal ratios were associated with greater perceived stress. Mothers and fathers did not differ in perceived stress, reappraisal, or suppression; however, suppression-to-reappraisal ratios significantly differed. CONCLUSION: Increasing ER skills such as reappraisal while reducing suppression may be beneficial for decreasing stress in expectant parents. Expectant fathers report similar levels of perceived stress to mothers and would benefit from prenatal mental health screening and intervention.

The effects of prenatal stress on neural responses to infant cries in expectant mothers and fathers.

The perinatal period is characterized by distinct neurobiological and psychological changes initiated prenatally, which may both facilitate postpartum caregiving and increase vulnerability to stress. Parents need to adapt to the high demands of caregiving, which include responding to salient infant cues, such as infant cries. Therefore, assessing the impact of prenatal stress exposure on parents' neural processing of infant cries may elucidate mechanisms conferring early risk for detrimental perinatal outcomes. Using event-related potentials, we examined whether prenatal perceived stress affected neural markers of perceptual (N1, P2) and attentional (LPP) processes elicited by high- and low-distress infant cries in expectant mothers (n = 38) and fathers (n = 30). Results evidenced that prenatal perceived stress impacted parents' sustained attentional processing (LPP) of infant cries, but not early perceptual responses (N1, P2). Specifically, higher levels of prenatal perceived stress were associated with a greater LPP response to low-distress, but not high-distress, infant cries. There were no parental sex differences in prenatal perceived stress or neural responses to infant cries. Increased attentional processing of low-distress cries in highly stressed parents may reflect uncertainty regarding infant distress level, thereby requiring more attentional resources. Overall, our results suggest that prenatal stress impacts processing of infant cues, even before birth.

Imagining the baby: Neural reactivity to infant distress and mind-mindedness in expectant parents.

Neural and psychological processes in pregnancy may be important antecedents for caregiving postpartum. Employing event-related potentials, we examined neural reactivity to infant emotional faces during the third trimester of pregnancy in expectant mothers (n = 38) and expectant fathers (n = 30). Specifically, expectant parents viewed infant distress and infant neutral faces while electroencephalography was simultaneously recorded. As a psychological measure, we assessed prenatal mind-mindedness towards the unborn child and examined whether neural processing of infant cues was associated with levels of mind-mindedness. Expectant fathers evidenced greater P300 reactivity to infant distress, relative to neutral, faces than expectant mothers. Furthermore, P300 reactivity to infant distress, relative to infant neutral, faces was associated with levels of prenatal mind-mindedness in expectant fathers but not expectant mothers. These findings indicate significant sex differences in the prenatal neural processing of infant cues and relations between neural reactivity to infant distress and the emergence of parental mind-mindedness.