Patient and Caregiver-Derived Health Service Improvements for Better Critical Care Recovery.

OBJECTIVES: To engage critical care end-users (survivors and caregivers) to describe their emotions and experiences across their recovery trajectory, and elicit their ideas and solutions for health service improvements to improve the ICU recovery experience. DESIGN: End-user engagement as part of a qualitative design using the Framework Analysis method. SETTING: The Society of Critical Care Medicine's THRIVE international collaborative sites (follow-up clinics and peer support groups). SUBJECTS: Patients and caregivers following critical illness and identified through the collaboratives. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Eighty-six interviews were conducted. The following themes were identified: 1) Emotions and experiences of patients-"Loss of former self; Experiences of disability and adaptation"; 2) Emotions and experiences of caregivers-"Emotional impacts, adopting new roles, and caregiver burden; Influence of gender roles; Adaptation, adjustment, recalibration"; and 3) Patient and caregiver-generated solutions to improve recovery across the arc of care-"Family-targeted education; Expectation management; Rehabilitation for patients and caregivers; Peer support groups; Reconnecting with ICU post-discharge; Access to community-based supports post-discharge; Psychological support; Education of issues of ICU survivorship for health professionals; Support across recovery trajectory." Themes were mapped to a previously published recovery framework (Timing It Right) that captures patient and caregiver experiences and their support needs across the phases of care from the event/diagnosis to adaptation post-discharge home. CONCLUSIONS: Patients and caregivers reported a range of emotions and experiences across the recovery trajectory from ICU to home. Through end-user engagement strategies many potential solutions were identified that could be implemented by health services and tested to support the delivery of higher-quality care for ICU survivors and their caregivers that extend from tertiary to primary care settings.

Modification of social determinants of health by critical illness and consequences of that modification for recovery: an international qualitative study.

OBJECTIVES: Social determinants of health (SDoH) contribute to health outcomes. We identified SDoH that were modified by critical illness, and the effect of such modifications on recovery from critical illness. DESIGN: In-depth semistructured interviews following hospital discharge. Interview transcripts were mapped against a pre-existing social policy framework: money and work; skills and education; housing, transport and neighbourhoods; and family, friends and social connections. SETTING: 14 hospital sites in the USA, UK and Australia. PARTICIPANTS: Patients and caregivers, who had been admitted to critical care from three continents. RESULTS: 86 interviews were analysed (66 patients and 20 caregivers). SDoH, both financial and non-financial in nature, could be negatively influenced by exposure to critical illness, with a direct impact on health-related outcomes at an individual level. Financial modifications included changes to employment status due to critical illness-related disability, alongside changes to income and insurance status. Negative health impacts included the inability to access essential healthcare and an increase in mental health problems. CONCLUSIONS: Critical illness appears to modify SDoH for survivors and their family members, potentially impacting recovery and health. Our findings suggest that increased attention to issues such as one's social network, economic security and access to healthcare is required following discharge from critical care.

Optimizing Critical Illness Recovery: Perspectives and Solutions From the Caregivers of ICU Survivors.

OBJECTIVES: To understand the unmet needs of caregivers of ICU survivors, how they accessed support post ICU, and the key components of beneficial ICU recovery support systems as identified from a caregiver perspective. DESIGN: International, qualitative study. SUBJECTS: We conducted 20 semistructured interviews with a diverse group of caregivers in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia, 11 of whom had interacted with an ICU recovery program. SETTING: Seven hospitals in the United States, United Kingdom, and Australia. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Content analysis was used to explore prevalent themes related to unmet needs, as well as perceived strategies to improve ICU outcomes. Post-ICU care was perceived to be generally inadequate. Desired caregiver support fell into two main categories: practical support and emotional support. Successful care delivery initiatives included structured programs, such as post discharge telephone calls, home health programs, post-ICU clinics, and peer support groups, and standing information resources, such as written educational materials and online resources. CONCLUSIONS: This qualitative, multicenter, international study of caregivers of critical illness survivors identified consistently unmet needs, means by which caregivers accessed support post ICU, and several care mechanisms identified by caregivers as supporting optimal ICU recovery.

Transitions of Care After Critical Illness-Challenges to Recovery and Adaptive Problem Solving.

OBJECTIVES: Investigate the challenges experienced by survivors of critical illness and their caregivers across the transitions of care from intensive care to community, and the potential problem-solving strategies used to navigate these challenges. DESIGN: Qualitative design-data generation via interviews and data analysis via the framework analysis method. SETTING: Patients and caregivers from three continents, identified through the Society of Critical Care Medicine's THRIVE international collaborative sites (follow-up clinics and peer support groups). SUBJECTS: Patients and caregivers following critical illness. INTERVENTIONS: Nil. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: From 86 interviews (66 patients, 20 caregivers), we identified the following major themes: 1) Challenges for patients-interacting with the health system and gaps in care; managing others' expectations of illness and recovery. 2) Challenges for caregivers-health system shortfalls and inadequate communication; lack of support for caregivers. 3) Patient and caregiver-driven problem solving across the transitions of care-personal attributes, resources, and initiative; receiving support and helping others; and acceptance. CONCLUSIONS: Survivors and caregivers experienced a range of challenges across the transitions of care. There were distinct and contrasting themes related to the caregiver experience. Survivors and caregivers used comparable problem-solving strategies to navigate the challenges encountered across the transitions of care.

Benefits of Peer Support for Intensive Care Unit Survivors: Sharing Experiences, Care Debriefing, and Altruism.

BACKGROUND: After critical illness, patients are often left with impairments in physical, social, emotional, and cognitive functioning. Peer support interventions have been implemented internationally to ameliorate these issues. OBJECTIVE: To explore what patients believed to be the key mechanisms of effectiveness of peer support programs implemented during critical care recovery. METHODS: In a secondary analysis of an international qualitative data set, 66 telephone interviews with patients were undertaken across 14 sites in Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States to understand the effect of peer support during recovery from critical illness. Prevalent themes were documented with framework analysis. RESULTS: Most patients who had been involved in peer support programs reported benefit. Patients described 3 primary mechanisms: (1) sharing experiences, (2) care debriefing, and (3) altruism. CONCLUSION: Peer support is a relatively simple intervention that could be implemented to support patients during recovery from critical illness. However, more research is required into how these programs can be implemented in a safe and sustainable way in clinical practice.

Key Components of ICU Recovery Programs: What Did Patients Report Provided Benefit?

To understand from the perspective of patients who did, and did not attend ICU recovery programs, what were the most important components of successful programs and how should they be organized. DESIGN: International, qualitative study. SETTING: Fourteen hospitals in the United States, United Kingdom, and Australia. PATIENTS: We conducted 66 semi-structured interviews with a diverse group of patients, 52 of whom had used an ICU recovery program and 14 whom had not. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Using content analysis, prevalent themes were documented to understand what improved their outcomes. Contrasting quotes from patients who had not received certain aspects of care were used to identify perceived differential effectiveness. Successful ICU recovery programs had five key components: 1) Continuity of care; 2) Improving symptom status; 3) Normalization and expectation management; 4) Internal and external validation of progress; and 5) Reducing feelings of guilt and helplessness. The delivery of care which achieved these goals was facilitated by early involvement (even before hospital discharge), direct involvement of ICU staff, and a focus on integration across traditional disease, symptom, and social welfare needs. CONCLUSIONS: In this multicenter study, conducted across three continents, patients identified specific and reproducible modes of benefit derived from ICU recovery programs, which could be the target of future intervention refinement.

An International Study Exploring the Experience of Survivors of Critical Illness as Volunteers Within ICU Recovery Services.

Many clinicians have implemented follow-up and aftercare to support patients following ICU. Some of this care is supported and facilitated by peer volunteers. There is limited contemporary work that has explicitly explored volunteer roles within ICU recovery services or the experience of volunteers undertaking these roles. We sought to explore the experience of survivors of critical illness, as volunteers, involved in ICU recovery services and understand their motivation for undertaking these roles. DESIGN: Qualitative exploration using in-depth semistructured interviews. The study design used an inductive content analysis process. We also documented the roles that were adopted by volunteers in each site involved in the study. SETTING: Patients and caregivers were sampled from seven sites across three continents. PATIENTS AND SUBJECTS: Patients and caregivers who had adopted peer-volunteering roles were undertaken. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Twelve patient and caregiver peer volunteers were interviewed. Four key themes were identified. These themes related to the experience of volunteers within ICU recovery services and their motivation for undertaking these roles: 1) self-belief and acceptance, 2) developing peer support, 3) social roles and a sense of purpose, and 4) giving back. Overwhelmingly, participants were positive about the role of the volunteer in the critical care setting. CONCLUSIONS: Peer volunteers undertake a variety of roles in ICU recovery services and during recovery more generally. These roles appear to be of direct benefit to those in these roles. Future research is needed to develop these roles and fully understand the potential impact on the service, including the impact on other patients.

Key mechanisms by which post-ICU activities can improve in-ICU care: results of the international THRIVE collaboratives.

OBJECTIVE: To identify the key mechanisms that clinicians perceive improve care in the intensive care unit (ICU), as a result of their involvement in post-ICU programs. METHODS: Qualitative inquiry via focus groups and interviews with members of the Society of Critical Care Medicine's THRIVE collaborative sites (follow-up clinics and peer support). Framework analysis was used to synthesize and interpret the data. RESULTS: Five key mechanisms were identified as drivers of improvement back into the ICU: (1) identifying otherwise unseen targets for ICU quality improvement or education programs-new ideas for quality improvement were generated and greater attention paid to detail in clinical care. (2) Creating a new role for survivors in the ICU-former patients and family members adopted an advocacy or peer volunteer role. (3) Inviting critical care providers to the post-ICU program to educate, sensitize, and motivate them-clinician peers and trainees were invited to attend as a helpful learning strategy to gain insights into post-ICU care requirements. (4) Changing clinician's own understanding of patient experience-there appeared to be a direct individual benefit from working in post-ICU programs. (5) Improving morale and meaningfulness of ICU work-this was achieved by closing the feedback loop to ICU clinicians regarding patient and family outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: The follow-up of patients and families in post-ICU care settings is perceived to improve care within the ICU via five key mechanisms. Further research is required in this novel area.

Enablers and Barriers to Implementing ICU Follow-Up Clinics and Peer Support Groups Following Critical Illness: The Thrive Collaboratives.

OBJECTIVES: Data are lacking regarding implementation of novel strategies such as follow-up clinics and peer support groups, to reduce the burden of postintensive care syndrome. We sought to discover enablers that helped hospital-based clinicians establish post-ICU clinics and peer support programs, and identify barriers that challenged them. DESIGN: Qualitative inquiry. The Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research was used to organize and analyze data. SETTING: Two learning collaboratives (ICU follow-up clinics and peer support groups), representing 21 sites, across three continents. SUBJECTS: Clinicians from 21 sites. MEASUREMENT AND MAIN RESULTS: Ten enablers and nine barriers to implementation of "ICU follow-up clinics" were described. A key enabler to generate support for clinics was providing insight into the human experience of survivorship, to obtain interest from hospital administrators. Significant barriers included patient and family lack of access to clinics and clinic funding. Nine enablers and five barriers to the implementation of "peer support groups" were identified. Key enablers included developing infrastructure to support successful operationalization of this complex intervention, flexibility about when peer support should be offered, belonging to the international learning collaborative. Significant barriers related to limited attendance by patients and families due to challenges in creating awareness, and uncertainty about who might be appropriate to attend and target in advertising. CONCLUSIONS: Several enablers and barriers to implementing ICU follow-up clinics and peer support groups should be taken into account and leveraged to improve ICU recovery. Among the most important enablers are motivated clinician leaders who persist to find a path forward despite obstacles.

Contemporary cardiac surgery for adults with congenital heart disease.

OBJECTIVE: Advances in early management of congenital heart disease (CHD) have led to an exponential growth in adults with CHD (ACHD). Many of these patients require cardiac surgery. This study sought to examine outcome and its predictors for ACHD cardiac surgery. METHODS: This is an observational cohort study of prospectively collected data on 1090 consecutive adult patients with CHD, undergoing 1130 cardiac operations for CHD at the Royal Brompton Hospital between 2002 and 2011. Early mortality was the primary outcome measure. Midterm to longer-term survival, cumulative incidence of reoperation, other interventions and/or new-onset arrhythmia were secondary outcome measures. Predictors of early/total mortality were identified. RESULTS: Age at surgery was 35±15 years, 53% male, 52.3% were in New York Heart Association (NYHA) class I, 37.2% in class II and 10.4% in class III/IV. Early mortality was 1.77% with independent predictors NYHA class ≥ III, tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE) <15 mm and female gender. Over a mean follow-up of 2.8±2.6 years, 46 patients died. Baseline predictors of total mortality were NYHA class ≥ III, TAPSE <15 mm and non-elective surgery. The number of sternotomies was not independently associated with neither early nor total mortality. At 10 years, probability of survival was 94%. NYHA class among survivors was significantly improved, compared with baseline. CONCLUSIONS: Contemporary cardiac surgery for ACHD performed at a single, tertiary reference centre with a multidisciplinary approach is associated with low mortality and improved functional status. Also, our findings emphasise the point that surgery should not be delayed because of reluctance to reoperate only.

Association of haemodynamic changes measured by serial central venous saturation during ultrafiltration for acutely decompensated heart failure with diuretic resistance and change in renal function.

BACKGROUND: Patients with acute decompensated heart failure with diuretic resistance (ADHF-DR) have a poor prognosis. The aim of this study was to assess in patients with ADHF-DR, whether haemodynamic changes during ultrafiltration (UF) are associated with changes in renal function (Δcreatinine) and whether Δcreatinine post UF is associated with mortality. METHODS: Seventeen patients with ADHF-DR underwent 20 treatments with UF. Serial bloods (4-6 hourly) from the onset of UF treatment were measured for renal function, electrolytes and central venous saturation (CVO2). Univariate and multivariate analysis were performed to assess the relationship between changes in markers of haemodynamics [heart rate (HR), systolic blood pressure (SBP), packed cell volume (PCV) and CVO2] and Δcreatinine. Patients were followed up and mortality recorded. Cox-regression survival analysis was performed to determine covariates associated with mortality. RESULTS: Renal function worsened after UF in 17 of the 20 UF treatments (baseline vs. post UF creatinine: 164±58 vs. 185±69µmol/l, P<0.01). ΔCVO2 was significantly associated with Δcreatinine [ß-coefficient of -1.3 95%CI (-1.8 to -0.7), P<0.001] and remained significantly associated with Δcreatinine after considering changes in SBP, HR and PCV [P<0.001]. Ten (59%) patients died at 1-year and 15(88%) by 2-years. Δcreatinine was independently associated with mortality (adjusted-hazard ratio 1.03 (1.01 to 1.07) per 1µmol/l increase in creatinine; P=0.02). CONCLUSIONS: Haemodynamic changes during UF as measured by the surrogate of cardiac output was associated with Δcreatinine. Worsening renal function at end of UF treatment occurred in the majority of patients and was associated with mortality.

Systemic inflammation and oxidative stress post-lung resection: Effect of pretreatment with N-acetylcysteine.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: N-acetylcysteine has been used to treat a variety of lung diseases, where is it thought to have an antioxidant effect. In a randomized placebo-controlled double-blind study, the effect of N-acetylcysteine on systemic inflammation and oxidative damage was examined in patients undergoing lung resection, a human model of acute lung injury. METHODS: Eligible adults were randomized to receive preoperative infusion of N-acetylcysteine (240 mg/kg over 12 h) or placebo. Plasma thiols, interleukin-6, 8-isoprostane, ischaemia-modified albumin, red blood cell glutathione and exhaled breath condensate pH were measured pre- and post-operatively as markers of local and systemic inflammation and oxidative stress. RESULTS: Patients undergoing lung resection and one-lung ventilation exhibited significant postoperative inflammation and oxidative damage. Postoperative plasma thiol concentration was significantly higher in the N-acetylcysteine-treated group. However, there was no significant difference in any of the measured biomarkers of inflammation or oxidative damage, or in clinical outcomes, between N-acetylcysteine and placebo groups. CONCLUSION: Preoperative administration of N-acetylcysteine did not attenuate postoperative systemic or pulmonary inflammation or oxidative damage after lung resection. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: NCT00655928 at ClinicalTrials.gov.

Clinical outcomes of surgical pulmonary valve replacement after repair of tetralogy of Fallot and potential prognostic value of preoperative cardiopulmonary exercise testing.

BACKGROUND: Indications for surgical pulmonary valve replacement (PVR) after repair of tetralogy of Fallot have recently been broadened to include asymptomatic patients. METHODS AND RESULTS: The outcomes of PVR in adults after repair of tetralogy of Fallot at a single tertiary center were retrospectively studied. Preoperative cardiopulmonary exercise testing was included. Mortality was the primary outcome measure. In total, 221 PVRs were performed in 220 patients (130 male patients; median age, 32 years; range, 16-64 years). Homografts were used in 117 patients, xenografts in 103 patients, and a mechanical valve in 1 patient. Early (30-day) mortality was 2%. Overall survival was 97% at 1 year, 96% at 3 years, and 92% at 10 years. Survival after PVR in the later era (2005-2010; n=156) was significantly better compared with survival in the earlier era (1993-2004; n=65; 99% versus 94% at 1 year and 98% versus 92% at 3 years, respectively; P=0.019). Earlier era patients were more symptomatic preoperatively (P=0.036) with a lower preoperative peak oxygen consumption (peak Vo2; P<0.001). Freedom from redo surgical or transcatheter PVR was 98% at 5 years and 96% at 10 years for the whole cohort. Peak Vo2, E/CO2 slope (ratio of minute ventilation to carbon dioxide production), and heart rate reserve during cardiopulmonary exercise testing predicted risk of early mortality when analyzed with logistic regression analysis; peak Vo2 emerged as the strongest predictor on multivariable analysis (odds ratio, 0.65 per 1 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹; P=0.041). CONCLUSIONS: PVR after repair of tetralogy of Fallot has a low and improving mortality, with a low need for reintervention. Preoperative cardiopulmonary exercise testing predicts surgical outcome and should therefore be included in the routine assessment of these patients.

Acute kidney injury after cardiac surgery according to Risk/Injury/Failure/Loss/End-stage, Acute Kidney Injury Network, and Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes classifications.

PURPOSE: The epidemiology of acute kidney injury (AKI) after cardiac surgery depends on the definition used. Our aims were to evaluate the Risk/Injury/Failure/Loss/End-stage (RIFLE) criteria, the AKI Network (AKIN) classification, and the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) classification for AKI post-cardiac surgery and to compare the outcome of patients on renal replacement therapy (RRT) with historical data. METHODS: Retrospective analysis of 1881 adults who had cardiac surgery between May 2006 and April 2008 and determination of the maximum AKI stage according to the AKIN, RIFLE, and KDIGO classifications. RESULTS: The incidence of AKI using the AKIN and RIFLE criteria was 25.9% and 24.9%, respectively, but individual patients were classified differently. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve for hospital mortality was significantly higher using the AKIN compared with the RIFLE criteria (0.86 vs 0.78, P = .0009). Incidence and outcome of AKI according to the AKIN and KDIGO classification were identical. The percentage of patients who received RRT was 6.2% compared with 2.7% in 1989 to 1990. The associated hospital mortality fell from 82.9% in 1989 to 1990 to 15.6% in 2006 to 2008. CONCLUSIONS: The AKIN classification correlated better with mortality than did the RIFLE criteria. Mortality of patients needing RRT after cardiac surgery has improved significantly during the last 20 years.

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for severe acute respiratory failure in adults: NICE guidance.

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) is a modified form of cardiopulmonary bypass that allows short-term support for potentially reversible severe acute respiratory and/or cardiac failure in critically ill adults and children. There is increasing interest in veno-venous (VV) ECMO for severe acute respiratory failure in adults. The National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence has recently updated its interventional procedure guidance, which summarises available data on efficacy and safety of this procedure and provides guidance for clinicians wishing to undertake VV ECMO. The authors summarise and reflect on the guidelines and discuss some recent developments in technology and clinical practice of VV ECMO.

Biomarkers of lung injury after one-lung ventilation for lung resection.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Acute lung injury contributes to the mortality of patients after lung resection and one-lung ventilation (OLV). The objective of this study was to characterise the effect of lung resection and OLV on proposed biomarkers of lung injury in exhaled breath condensate (EBC) and plasma. METHODS: In adults undergoing lung resection, EBC was collected before and at 30-min intervals during OLV. Inflammatory mediators were assayed in plasma samples taken preoperatively, immediately postoperatively and 24 h postoperatively. RESULTS: EBC pH decreased from 6.51 ± 0.43 preoperatively, to 6.17 ± 0.78 and 6.09 ± 0.83 at 30 and 60 min, respectively (mean ± SD, P = 0.034, n = 20). Plasma concentrations of the receptor for advanced glycation end-products, von Willebrand factor and interleukin-6 increased comparing preoperative and postoperative samples (all P < 0.001, n = 30). By contrast, levels of Krebs von den Lungen-6 and surfactant protein-D decreased (P < 0.001, n=30), and correlated inversely with the extent of lung resected. CONCLUSIONS: Lung resection and OLV was associated with a rapid reduction in EBC pH and differential changes in plasma biomarkers of lung injury. Further investigation of EBC pH as a marker of ventilator-induced lung injury is warranted.

Breathlessness after pneumonectomy: consider postpneumonectomy syndrome.

A 59-year-old woman presented with increasing breathlessness several weeks after right pneumonectomy. Imaging confirmed features of postpneumonectomy syndrome with marked mediastinal shift, and compression of the left main bronchus and pulmonary vein. The mediastinum was repositioned by insertion of saline-filled prostheses into the pneumonectomy space with symptomatic and radiologic improvement. Clinicians caring for patients after pneumonectomy should be aware of this rare but treatable complication.

New flow cytometric technique for the evaluation of circulating endothelial progenitor cell levels in various disease groups.

Circulating endothelial progenitor cells (EPC) localise to sites of ischaemia and play a role in vascular repair and re-endothelialisation of injured blood vessels. Low levels of EPCs are associated with cardiovascular disease (CVD) in the general population. It is not clear at present whether and how the numbers of circulating EPCs vary in diseases other than CVD. We have enumerated EPCs by the flow cytometric analysis of whole blood by using a novel cocktail of monoclonal antibodies. This consisted of CD2FITC, CD13FITC and CD22FITC to eliminate non-progenitor cells and VEGFR2PE and CD133-streptavidin-PeCy7 to include only EPCs. We analysed 250 patients with varying stages of uraemia, 36 patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and 9 patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome and compared this to 74 healthy controls. Using flow cytometry we were able to measure the circulating levels of EPCs, with a result available within hours of the sample being obtained. Circulating EPC numbers vary in different patient groups and healthy controls. In uraemic patients, irrespective of disease severity, there are lower numbers of circulating EPC numbers compared to normal controls (46.6+/-3.7 vs. 66.1+/-4.7; p=0.03). This new technique provides a means of monitoring patients and shows a reduction in circulating EPCs in uraemic patients; this abnormality may be a target of novel therapies.