B cells modulate lung antiviral inflammatory responses via the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.

The rapid onset of innate immune defenses is critical for early control of viral replication in an infected host, yet it can also lead to irreversible tissue damage, especially in the respiratory tract. Intricate regulatory mechanisms must exist that modulate inflammation, while controlling the infection. Here, B cells expressing choline acetyl transferase (ChAT), an enzyme required for production of the metabolite and neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) are identified as such regulators of the immediate early response to influenza A virus. Lung tissue ChAT + B cells are shown to interact with a7 nicotinic Ach receptor-expressing lung interstitial macrophages in mice within 24h of infection to control their production of TNFa, shifting the balance towards reduced inflammation at the cost of enhanced viral replication. Thus, innate-stimulated B cells are key participants of an immediate-early regulatory cascade that controls lung tissue damage after viral infection.

Secreted IgM modulates IL-10 expression in B cells.

IL-10+ B cells are critical for immune homeostasis and restraining immune responses in infection, cancer, and inflammation; however, the signals that govern IL-10+ B cell differentiation are ill-defined. Here we find that IL-10+ B cells expand in mice lacking secreted IgM ((s)IgM-/-) up to 10-fold relative to wildtype (WT) among all major B cell and regulatory B cell subsets. The IL-10+ B cell increase is polyclonal and presents within 24 hours of birth. In WT mice, sIgM is produced prenatally and limits the expansion of IL-10+ B cells. Lack of the high affinity receptor for sIgM, FcµR, in B cells translates into an intermediate IL-10+ B cell phenotype relative to WT or sIgM-/- mice. Our study thus shows that sIgM regulates IL-10 programming in B cells in part via B cell-expressed FcµR, thereby revealing a function of sIgM in regulating immune homeostasis.

Borrelia burgdorferi Infection-Induced Persistent IgM Secretion Controls Bacteremia, but Not Bacterial Dissemination or Tissue Burden.

Infection with Borrelia burgdorferi causes Lyme disease in humans. In small rodents, the natural reservoir species of this spirochete, infections lead to only modest disease manifestations, despite causing persistence infection. Although B cell responses are central for controlling bacterial tissue burden and disease manifestations, they lack classical aspects of T-dependent responses, such as sustained IgG affinity maturation and longevity, corresponding with a rapid collapse of germinal centers. Instead, the Ab response is characterized by strong and ongoing secretion of IgM, whose origins and impact on protective immunity to B. burgdorferi remain unknown. In this article, we demonstrate that B. burgdorferi infection-induced IgM in mice was produced continuously, mainly by conventional B, not B-1 cells, in a T-independent manner. Although IgM was passively protective and restricted early bacteremia, its production had no effects on bacterial dissemination into solid tissues, nor did it affect Borrelia tissue burden. The latter was controlled by the induction of bactericidal IgG, as shown comparing infections in wild type mice with those of mice lacking exclusively secreted IgM-/-, all class-switched Abs via deletion of aicda (AID-/-), and all secreted Abs (secreted IgM-/- × AID-/-). Consistent with the notion that B. burgdorferi infection drives production of IgM over more tissue-penetrable IgG, we demonstrated increased short- and long-term IgM Ab responses also to a coadministered, unrelated Ag. Thus, the continued production of IgM may explain the absence of B. burgdorferi in the blood.

Antigen-Specific CD4 T Cell and B Cell Responses to Borrelia burgdorferi.

Long-lived T-dependent B cell responses fail to develop during persistent infection of mice with Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme disease, raising questions about the induction and/or functionality of anti-B. burgdorferi adaptive immune responses. Yet, a lack of reagents has limited investigations into B. burgdorferi-specific T and B cells. We attempted two approaches to track B. burgdorferi-induced CD4 T cells. First, a B. burgdorferi mutant was generated with an influenza hemagglutinin (HA) peptide, HA111-119, inserted into the B. burgdorferi arthritis-related protein (Arp) locus. Although this B. burgdorferi arp::HA strain remained infectious, peptide-specific TCR transgenic CD4 T cells in vitro, or adoptively transferred into B. burgdorferi arp::HA-infected BALB/c mice, did not clonally expand above those of recipients infected with the parental B. burgdorferi strain or a B. burgdorferi mutant containing an irrelevant peptide. Some expansion, however, occurred in B. burgdorferi arp::HA-infected BALB/c SCID mice. Second, a (to our knowledge) newly identified I-Ab-restricted CD4 T cell epitope, Arp152-166, was used to generate Arp MHC class II tetramers. Flow cytometry showed small numbers of Arp-specific CD4 T cells emerging in mice infected with B. burgdorferi but not with Arp-deficient Borrelia afzelii. Although up to 30% of Arp-specific CD4 T cells were ICOS+PD-1+CXCR5+BCL6+ T follicular helper cells, their numbers declined after day 12, before germinal centers (GCs) are prominent. Although some Arp-specific B cells, identified using fluorochrome-labeled rArp proteins, had the phenotype of GC B cells, their frequencies did not correlate with anti-Arp serum IgG. The data suggest a failure not in the induction, but in the maintenance of GC T follicular helper and/or B cells to B. burgdorferi.

A microfluidic strategy to capture antigen-specific high affinity B cells.

Assessing B cell affinity to pathogen-specific antigens prior to or following exposure could facilitate the assessment of immune status. Current standard tools to assess antigen-specific B cell responses focus on equilibrium binding of the secreted antibody in serum. These methods are costly, time-consuming, and assess antibody affinity under zero-force. Recent findings indicate that force may influence BCR-antigen binding interactions and thus immune status. Here, we designed a simple laminar flow microfluidic chamber in which the antigen (hemagglutinin of influenza A) is bound to the chamber surface to assess antigen-specific BCR binding affinity of five hemagglutinin-specific hybridomas under 65- to 650-pN force range. Our results demonstrate that both increasing shear force and bound lifetime can be used to enrich antigen-specific high affinity B cells. The affinity of the membrane-bound BCR in the flow chamber correlates well with the affinity of the matched antibodies measured in solution. These findings demonstrate that a microfluidic strategy can rapidly assess BCR-antigen binding properties and identify antigen-specific high affinity B cells. This strategy has the potential to both assess functional immune status from peripheral B cells and be a cost-effective way of identifying individual B cells as antibody sources for a range of clinical applications.

Toll-like receptor mediated inflammation directs B cells towards protective antiviral extrafollicular responses.

Extrafollicular plasmablast responses (EFRs) are considered to generate antibodies of low affinity that offer little protection from infections. Paradoxically, high avidity antigen-B cell receptor engagement is thought to be the main driver of B cell differentiation, whether in EFRs or slower-developing germinal centers (GCs). Here we show that influenza infection rapidly induces EFRs, generating protective antibodies via Toll-like receptor (TLR)-mediated mechanisms that are both B cell intrinsic and extrinsic. B cell-intrinsic TLR signals support antigen-stimulated B cell survival, clonal expansion, and the differentiation of B cells via induction of IRF4, the master regulator of B cell differentiation, through activation of NF-kB c-Rel. Provision of sustained TLR4 stimulation after immunization shifts the fate of virus-specific B cells towards EFRs instead of GCs, prompting rapid antibody production and improving their protective capacity over antigen/alum administration alone. Thus, inflammatory signals act as B cell fate-determinants for the rapid generation of protective antiviral extrafollicular responses.

Original antigenic sin: not so sinful after all.

'Original antigenic sin' predicts that antibody responses to secondary infections with escape mutants are dominated by specificities to the original pathogen. Using transgenic mice in which antibodies are tagged based on cellular origins and kinetics, Schiepers et al. support this prediction, and reveal accumulation of cross-reactive specificities chiefly among long-lived responses.

Enhanced Mott cell formation linked with IgM Fc receptor (FcµR) deficiency.

In previous studies, Mott cells, an unusual form of plasma cells containing Ig-inclusion bodies, were frequently observed in peripheral lymphoid tissues in our IgM Fc receptor (FcµR)-deficient (KO) mouse strain. Because of discrepancies in the reported phenotypes of different Fcmr KO mouse strains, we here examined two additional available mutant strains and confirmed that such enhanced Mott-cell formation was a general phenomenon associated with FcµR deficiency. Splenic B cells from Fcmr KO mice clearly generated more Mott cells than those from WT mice when stimulated in vitro with LPS alone or a B-1, but not B-2, activation cocktail. Nucleotide sequence analysis of the Ig variable regions of a single IgMλ+ Mott-hybridoma clone developed from splenic B-1 B cells of Fcmr KO mice revealed the near (VH) or complete (Vλ) identity with the corresponding germline gene segments and the addition of six or five nucleotides at the VH/DH and DH/JH junctions, respectively. Transduction of an FcµR cDNA into the Mott hybridoma significantly reduced cells containing IgM-inclusion bodies with a concomitant increase in IgM secretion, leading to secreted IgM binding to FcµR expressed on Mott transductants. These findings suggest a regulatory role of FcµR in the formation of Mott cells and IgM-inclusion bodies.

An Igh distal enhancer modulates antigen receptor diversity by determining locus conformation.

The mouse Igh locus is organized into a developmentally regulated topologically associated domain (TAD) that is divided into subTADs. Here we identify a series of distal VH enhancers (EVHs) that collaborate to configure the locus. EVHs engage in a network of long-range interactions that interconnect the subTADs and the recombination center at the DHJH gene cluster. Deletion of EVH1 reduces V gene rearrangement in its vicinity and alters discrete chromatin loops and higher order locus conformation. Reduction in the rearrangement of the VH11 gene used in anti-PtC responses is a likely cause of the observed reduced splenic B1 B cell compartment. EVH1 appears to block long-range loop extrusion that in turn contributes to locus contraction and determines the proximity of distant VH genes to the recombination center. EVH1 is a critical architectural and regulatory element that coordinates chromatin conformational states that favor V(D)J rearrangement.

B-1 plasma cells require non-cognate CD4 T cell help to generate a unique repertoire of natural IgM.

Evolutionarily conserved, "natural" (n)IgM is broadly reactive to both self and foreign antigens. Its selective deficiency leads to increases in autoimmune diseases and infections. In mice, nIgM is secreted independent of microbial exposure to bone marrow (BM) and spleen B-1 cell-derived plasma cells (B-1PC), generating the majority of nIgM, or by B-1 cells that remain non-terminally differentiated (B-1sec). Thus, it has been assumed that the nIgM repertoire is broadly reflective of the repertoire of body cavity B-1 cells. Studies here reveal, however, that B-1PC generate a distinct, oligoclonal nIgM repertoire, characterized by short CDR3 variable immunoglobulin heavy chain regions, 7-8 amino acids in length, some public, many arising from convergent rearrangements, while specificities previously associated with nIgM were generated by a population of IgM-secreting B-1 (B-1sec). BM, but not spleen B-1PC, or B-1sec also required the presence of TCRαß CD4 T cells for their development from fetal precursors. Together, the studies identify important previously unknown characteristics of the nIgM pool.

CD4 T cell responses in persistent Borrelia burgdorferi infection.

Infection of mice with Borrelia burgdorferi (Bb), a tick-transmitted spirochete and the pathogen that causes Lyme disease in humans, triggers CD4 T cell activation in secondary lymphoid tissues, from which they disseminate into various infected tissues. Despite their activation and the appearance of CD4 T cell-dependent antibody responses, Bb establishes persistent infection in natural Bb reservoir hosts in the absence of overt disease, raising the question of the effectiveness of the anti-Bb T cell responses. Reviewing the existing literature, we propose that CD4 T cells might constitute a host cell target of Bb-mediated immune evasion, rendering these cells ineffective in orchestrating effective inflammatory responses and in supporting highly functional Bb-specific antibody induction. Supporting the induction of more effective CD4 T cell responses may help overcome Bb persistence.

Genetic mapping reveals Nfkbid as a central regulator of humoral immunity to Toxoplasma gondii.

Protective immunity to parasitic infections has been difficult to elicit by vaccines. Among parasites that evade vaccine-induced immunity is Toxoplasma gondii, which causes lethal secondary infections in chronically infected mice. Here we report that unlike susceptible C57BL/6J mice, A/J mice were highly resistant to secondary infection. To identify correlates of immunity, we utilized forward genetics to identify Nfkbid, a nuclear regulator of NF-κB that is required for B cell activation and B-1 cell development. Nfkbid-null mice ("bumble") did not generate parasite-specific IgM and lacked robust parasite-specific IgG, which correlated with defects in B-2 cell maturation and class-switch recombination. Though high-affinity antibodies were B-2 derived, transfer of B-1 cells partially rescued the immunity defects observed in bumble mice and were required for 100% vaccine efficacy in bone marrow chimeric mice. Immunity in resistant mice correlated with robust isotype class-switching in both B cell lineages, which can be fine-tuned by Nfkbid gene expression. We propose a model whereby humoral immunity to T. gondii is regulated by Nfkbid and requires B-1 and B-2 cells for full protection.

Recent Progress in Lyme Disease and Remaining Challenges.

Lyme disease (also known as Lyme borreliosis) is the most common vector-borne disease in the United States with an estimated 476,000 cases per year. While historically, the long-term impact of Lyme disease on patients has been controversial, mounting evidence supports the idea that a substantial number of patients experience persistent symptoms following treatment. The research community has largely lacked the necessary funding to properly advance the scientific and clinical understanding of the disease, or to develop and evaluate innovative approaches for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Given the many outstanding questions raised into the diagnosis, clinical presentation and treatment of Lyme disease, and the underlying molecular mechanisms that trigger persistent disease, there is an urgent need for more support. This review article summarizes progress over the past 5 years in our understanding of Lyme and tick-borne diseases in the United States and highlights remaining challenges.

Report of the Pathogenesis and Pathophysiology of Lyme Disease Subcommittee of the HHS Tick Borne Disease Working Group.

An understanding of the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of Lyme disease is key to the ultimate care of patients with Lyme disease. To better understand the various mechanisms underlying the infection caused by Borrelia burgdorferi, the Pathogenesis and Pathophysiology of Lyme Disease Subcommittee was formed to review what is currently known about the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of Lyme disease, from its inception, but also especially about its ability to persist in the host. To that end, the authors of this report were assembled to update our knowledge about the infectious process, identify the gaps that exist in our understanding of the process, and provide recommendations as to how to best approach solutions that could lead to a better means to manage patients with persistent Lyme disease.

The Shaping of a B Cell Pool Maximally Responsive to Infections.

B cell subsets differ in development, tissue distribution, and mechanisms of activation. In response to infections, however, all can differentiate into extrafollicular plasmablasts that rapidly provide highly protective antibodies, indicating that these plasmablasts are the main humoral immune response effectors. Yet, the effectiveness of this response type depends on the presence of antigen-specific precursors in the circulating mature B cell pool, a pool that is generated initially through the stochastic processes of B cell receptor assembly. Importantly, germinal centers then mold the repertoire of this B cell pool to be increasingly responsive to pathogens by generating a broad array of antimicrobial memory B cells that act as highly effective precursors of extrafollicular plasmablasts. Such B cell repertoire molding occurs in two ways: continuously via the chronic germinal centers of mucosal lymphoid tissues, driven by the presence of the microbiome, and via de novo generated germinal centers following acute infections. For effectively evaluating humoral immunity as a correlate of immune protection, it might be critical to measure memory B cell pools in addition to antibody titers.

Purification and Immune Phenotyping of B-1 Cells from Body Cavities of Mice.

B-1 cells are fetal-origin B lymphocytes with unique developmental and functional characteristics that can generate natural, polyreactive antibodies with important functions in tissue homeostasis and immune defense. While B-1 cell frequencies in bone marrow and secondary lymphoid tissues are low, relative high frequencies exist within peritoneal and pleural cavities of mice, including both CD5+ and CD5- B-1 cells. These cells represent B-1 reservoirs that, when activated, migrate to lymphoid tissues to secrete antibodies and/or cytokines. Here, we outline efficient methods for the extraction and magnetic isolation of CD5+ B-1 cells from the peritoneal and pleural cavities as well as the separation and phenotypic characterization of CD5+ and CD5- B-1 cells by flow cytometry.

Immune Response to Borrelia: Lessons from Lyme Disease Spirochetes.

The mammalian host responds to infection with Borrelia spirochetes through a highly orchestrated immune defense involving innate and adaptive effector functions aimed toward limiting pathogen burdens, minimizing tissue injury, and preventing subsequent reinfection. The evolutionary adaptation of Borrelia spirochetes to their reservoir mammalian hosts may allow for its persistence despite this immune defense. This review summarizes our current understanding of the host immune response to B. burgdorferi sensu lato, the most widely studied Borrelia spp. and etiologic agent of Lyme borreliosis. Pertinent literature will be reviewed with emphasis on in vitro, ex vivo and animal studies that influenced our understanding of both the earliest responses to B. burgdorferi as it enters the mammalian host and those that evolve as spirochetes disseminate and establish infection in multiple tissues. Our focus is on the immune response of inbred mice, the most commonly studied animal model of B. burgdorferi infection and surrogate for one of this pathogen's principle natural reservoir hosts, the white-footed deer mouse. Comparison will be made to the immune responses of humans with Lyme borreliosis. Our goal is to provide an understanding of the dynamics of the mammalian immune response during infection with B. burgdorferi and its relation to the outcomes in reservoir (mouse) and non-reservoir (human) hosts.

Memory Lapses-Winning the Slow Race.

Pre-existing humoral immunity can impact immune responses to heterologous infections. In this issue of Immunity, Wong et al. reveal that memory B cells, while failing to re-enter the germinal center, create an affinity-restricted, diversified B cell repertoire for rapid plasma blast responses. Their findings have important implications to vaccine design.