Endocrine changes during the peripartal period related to colostrogenesis in mammalian species.

This review discusses endocrine and functional changes during the transition from late gestation to lactation that are related to the production of colostrum in different mammalian species. Species covered in this article include ungulate species (cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses), rodents (rat, mouse), rabbits, and carnivores (cats, dogs), as well as humans. An immediate availability of high quality colostrum for the newborn after birth is crucial in species where a transfer of immunoglobulins (Ig) does not or only partially occur via the placenta during pregnancy. Declining activity of gestagens, in most species progesterone (P4), is crucial at the end of pregnancy to allow for the characteristic endocrine changes to initiate parturition and lactation, but the endocrine regulation of colostrogenesis is negligible. Both, the functional pathways and the timing of gestagen withdrawal differ considerably among mammalian species. In species with a sustaining corpus luteum throughout the entire pregnancy (cattle, goat, pig, cat, dog, rabbit, mouse, and rat), a prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α)-induced luteolysis shortly before parturition is assumed to be the key event to initiate parturition as well as lactogenesis. In species where the gestagen production is taken over by the placenta during the course of gestation (e.g., sheep, horse, and human), the reduction of gestagen activity is more complex, as PGF2α does not affect placental gestagen production. In sheep the steroid hormone synthesis is directed away from P4 towards estradiol-17ß (E2) to achieve a low gestagen activity at high E2 concentrations. In humans the uterus becomes insensitive to P4, as parturition occurs despite still high P4 concentrations. However, lactogenesis is not completed as long as P4 concentration is high. Early colostrum and thus Ig intake for immune protection is not needed for the human newborn which allows a delayed onset of copious milk secretion for days until the placenta expulsion causes the P4 drop. Like humans, horses do not need low gestagen concentrations for successful parturition. However, newborn foals need immediate immune protection through Ig intake with colostrum. This requires the start of lactogenesis before parturition which is not fully clarified. The knowledge of the endocrine changes and related pathways to control the key events integrating the processes of colostrogenesis, parturition, and start of lactation are incomplete in many species.

This manuscript reviews and compares hormonal and functional changes occurring in the conceptus (embryo and its extra-embryonic membranes) and their effects on the mammary gland during development from pregnancy to colostrum formation and milk production in multiple mammalian species. Declining activity of gestagens at the end of pregnancy is crucial to allow for both parturition and onset of milk production in most mammals. Strategies to achieve this state of low gestagen activity are different among species. In species where the corpus luteum is sustained throughout the entire pregnancy, luteolysis is the key event to initiate parturition and onset of milk secretion (cattle, goat, pig, cat, dog, rat, mouse, rabbit). However, in species where the placenta takes over gestagen production during the course of pregnancy, the achievement of a state of low gestagen activity is more complex. It ranges from redirection of the hormone production pathway away from gestagens in sheep, to decreasing sensitivity of the uterus towards gestagens in humans. In the horse, there is evidence pointing towards redirection of the hormone production as well as a decrease in sensitivity towards gestagens, but the exact mechanisms are still not clarified.

Colostrogenesis: Role and Mechanism of the Bovine Fc Receptor of the Neonate (FcRn).

Colostrogenesis is a separate and unique phase of mammary epithelial cell activity occurring in the weeks before parturition and rather abruptly ending after birth in the bovine. It has been the focus of research to define what controls this process and how it produces high concentrations of specific biologically active components important for the neonate. In this review we consider colostrum composition and focus upon components that appear in first milked colostrum in concentrations exceeding that in blood serum. The Fc Receptor of the Neonate (FcRn) is recognized as the major immunoglobulin G (IgG) and albumin binding protein that accounts for the proteins' long half-lives. We integrate the action of the pinocytotic (fluid phase) uptake of extracellular components and merge them with FcRn in sorting endosomes. We define and explore the means of binding, sorting, and the transcytotic delivery of IgG1 while recycling IgG2 and albumin. We consider the means of releasing the ligands from the receptor within the endosome and describe a new secretion mechanism of cargo release into colostrum without the appearance of FcRn itself in colostrum. We integrate the insulin-like growth factor family, some of which are highly concentrated bioactive components of colostrum, with the mechanisms related to FcRn endosome action. In addition to secretion, we highlight the recent findings of a role of the FcRn in phagocytosis and antigen presentation and relate its significant and abrupt change in cellular location after parturition to a role in the prevention and resistance to mastitis infections.

Quarter variation and correlations of colostrum albumin, immunoglobulin G1 and G2 in dairy cows.

A high variation in immunoglobulin G1 (IgG1) concentration in first milked quarter colostrum has been reported, but BSA quarter colostrum variation is not known. The occurrence of serum albumin in milk has been attributed to increased blood-milk barrier penetration. Reports of serum albumin binding to the Fc Receptor of the neonate, the receptor thought to be responsible for IgG1 transcytosis, suggested that a correlation with the appearance of IgG1 in colostrum of dairy cows was likely. The objective of the study was to establish the quarter colostrum concentration and mass of immunoglobulins and serum albumin. First colostrum was quarter collected within 4 h of parturition from healthy udders of 31 multiparous dairy cows. Individual quarter colostrum weight was determined and a sample of each was frozen for subsequent analysis. Concentrations of immunoglobulin G1, G2, and BSA were measured by ELISA and total mass of components was calculated. In addition, colostrum was also analysed for L-lactate dehydrogenase activity. Analysis of concentration and mass of BSA, immunoglobulin G1, G2 established that the quarter variations were different by cow, quarter and quarter within cow. Partial correlations corrected for colostrum weight indicated that BSA and IgG2 concentration and mass are closely correlated while that of BSA and IgG1 concentration and mass exhibited no correlation suggesting that BSA and IgG1 may have different transport mechanisms. Interestingly, immunoglobulin G1 and G2 concentration and mass exhibited strong correlations suggesting that also some unknown mechanism of immunoglobulin G2 appearance in colostrum is occurring. Finally, no measured protein exhibited any correlation with the activity of lactate dehydrogenase in colostrum.

Continuous milking of dairy cows disrupts timing of peak IgG concentration appearance in mammary secretions.

The length of the dry period in commercial dairy production is under close scrutiny. While the main concern is the composition and volume of milk produced, the evaluation of colostrum quality under these new paradigms has suggested a decline in IgG concentrations, while some reports indicate no change. Colostrum quality has been defined as an adequate concentration (>50 mg/ml) of immunoglobulin in the secretions to provide the newborn with maximal disease resistance. We investigated the appearance of IgG in mammary pre- and post partum secretions in cows without a dry period (continuously milked, Dry0) and compared the secretions with cows that experienced a dry period of 60 d (Dry60). Blood was collected during the experimental period and plasma analysed for progesterone (P4) and prolactin (Prl). Approximately -6 d relative to parturition, the Dry0 animals exhibited increased concentration of IgG in their secretions to an average of ∼35 mg/ml that remained rather constant through subsequent pregnancy and following parturition. Dry0 cows were producing an average IgG concentration in parturition colostrum of 44·2±17·6 mg/ml that was not different than that of controls (66·86±16·8 mg/ml). However, Dry0 cows exhibited high variation, different peak times (day) of IgG concentration including times that occurred both pre and post parturition. IgG mass of the Dry0 cows remained rather constant pre- and post partum and did not show the same declining mass following parturition that was shown for the Dry60 cows. The change in plasma P4 and Prl were shown to have no timing effect on colostrum IgG concentration.

Short communication: Immunoglobulin variation in quarter-milked colostrum.

Whereas whole first-milked colostrum IgG1 variation is documented, the IgG1 difference between the quarter mammary glands of dairy animals is unknown. First colostrum was quarter-collected from healthy udders of 8 multiparous dairy cows, all within 3h of parturition. Weight of colostrum produced by individual quarters was determined and a sample of each was frozen for subsequent analysis. Immunoglobulin G1 concentration (mg/mL) was measured by ELISA and total mass (g) was calculated. Standard addition method was used to overcome colostrum matrix effects and validate the standard ELISA measures. Analysis of the data showed that cow and quarter (cow) were significantly different in both concentration and total mass per quarter. Analysis of the mean IgG1 concentration of the front and rear quarters showed that this was not different, but the large variation in individual quarters confounds the analysis. This quarter difference finding indicates that each mammary gland develops a different capacity to accumulate precolostrum IgG1, whereas the circulating hormone concentrations that induce colostrogenesis reach the 4 glands similarly. This finding also shows that the variation in quarter colostrum production is a contributor to the vast variation in first milking colostrum IgG1 content. Finally, the data suggests other factors, such as locally acting autocrine or paracrine, epigenetic, or stochasticity, in gene regulation mechanisms may impinge on colostrogenesis capacity.

Colostrogenesis: IgG1 transcytosis mechanisms.

Biological transport of intact proteins across epithelial cells has been documented for many absorptive and secretory tissues. Immunoglobulins were some of the earliest studied proteins in this category. The transcellular transport (transcytosis) of immunoglobulins in neonatal health and development has been recognized; the process is especially significant with ungulates because they do not transcytose immunoglobulins across the placenta to the neonate. Rather, they depend upon mammary secretion of colostrum and intestinal absorption of immunoglobulins in order to provide intestinal and systemic defense until the young ungulate develops its own humoral defense mechanisms. The neonatal dairy calf's ability to absorb immunoglobulins from colostrum is assisted by a ~24 h "open gut" phenomenon where large proteins pass the intestinal epithelial cells and enter the systemic system. However, a critical problem recognized for newborn dairy calves is that an optimum mass of colostrum Immunoglobulin G (IgG) needs to be absorbed within that 24 h window in order to provide maximal resistance to disease. Many calves do not achieve the optimum because of poor quality colostrum. While many studies have focused on calf absorption, the principal cause of the problem resides with the extreme variation (g to kg) in the mammary gland's capacity to transfer blood IgG1 into colostrum. Colostrum is a unique mammary secretory product that is formed during late pregnancy when mammary cells are proliferating and differentiating in preparation for lactation. In addition to the transcytosis of immunoglobulins, the mammary gland also concentrates a number of circulating hormones into colostrum. Remarkably, the mechanisms in the formation of colostrum in ungulates have been rather modestly studied. The mechanisms and causes of this variation in mammary gland transcytosis of IgG1 are examined, evaluated, and in some cases, explained.

Superhydrophobic effect on the adsorption of human serum albumin.

Analytical protocol greatly influences the measurement of human serum albumin (HSA) adsorption to commercial expanded polytetrafluororethylene (ePTFE) exhibiting superhydrophobic wetting properties. Degassing of buffer solutions and evacuation of ePTFE adsorbent to remove trapped air immediately prior to contact with protein solutions are shown to be essential. Results obtained with ePTFE as a prototypical superhydrophobic test material suggest that vacuum degassing should be applied in the measurement of protein adsorption to any surface exhibiting superhydrophobicity. Solution depletion quantified using radiometry ((125)I-labeled HSA) or electrophoresis yield different measures of adsorption, with nearly 4-fold higher surface concentrations of unlabeled HSA measured by the electrophoresis method. This outcome is attributed to the influence of the radiolabel on HSA hydrophilicity which decreases radiolabeled-HSA affinity for a hydrophobic adsorbent in comparison to unlabeled HSA. These results indicate that radiometry underestimates the actual amount of protein adsorbed to a particular material. Removal of radiolabeled HSA adsorbed to ePTFE by 3x serial buffer rinses also shows that the remaining "bound fraction" was about 35% lower than the amount measured by radiometric depletion. This observation implies that measurement of protein bound after surface rinsing significantly underestimates the actual amount of protein concentrated by adsorption into the surface region of a protein-contacting material.

Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs), IGF binding proteins, and other endocrine factors in milk: role in the newborn.

The role of colostrum and milk in the neonate has been chiefly recognized as a comprehensive nutrient foodstuff. In addition, the provision of colostrum-the first milk-for early immune capacity has been well documented for several species. Colostrum is additionally a rich and concentrated source of various factors that demonstrate biological activity in vitro. Three hypotheses have been proposed for the phenotypic function of these secreted bioactive components: (1) only mammary disposal, (2) mammary cell regulation, and (3) neonatal function [gastrointestinal tract (GIT) or systemic]. Traditionally, it was assumed that the development of the GIT is preprogrammed and not influenced by events occurring in the intestinal lumen. However, a large volume of research has demonstrated that colostrum (or milk-borne) bioactive components can basically contribute to the regulation of GIT growth and differentiation, while their role in postnatal development at physiological concentrations has remained elusive. Much of our current understanding is derived from cell culture and laboratory animals, but experimentation with agriculturally important species is taking place. This chapter provides an overview of work conducted primarily in neonatal calves and secondarily in other species on the effects on neonates of selected peptide endocrine factors (hormones, growth factors, in part cytokines) in colostrum. The primary focus will be on insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) and IGF binding proteins (IGFBPs) and other bioactive peptides, but new interest and concern about steroids (especially estrogens) in milk are considered as well.

Lactoferrin (Lf): Retinoid interactions in the mammary glands of transgenic mice overexpressing human Lf.

Induction of protein expression in a tissue-specific manner by gene transfer over-expression techniques has been one means to define the function of a protein in a biological paradigm. Studies with retinoid reporter constructs transfected in mammary cell lines suggests that lactoferrin (Lf) affects retinoid signaling pathways and alters apoptosis. We tested the effects and interactions of over-expressed mammary-specific human lactoferrin (hLf) and dietary retinol palmitate on lactation and mammary gland development in mice. Increased retinol palmitate in the diet increased daily retinol equivalents (RE) to 2.6-fold over the normal mouse control diet. Transgene (Tg) expression in the dam fed control diet depressed pup weight gain. Severe depression of pup weight gain was observed when homozygote TgTg dams were fed the RE diet. Normal weight gain was restored when pups were placed with a wild type dam fed the RE diet; conversely, normal growing pups from the wild type dams showed declining weight gains when fostered to the TgTg RE-fed dams. Northern analysis of mammary tissue extracts showed a reduction in WAP and an increase in IGFBP-3 mRNA that was associated with the presence of the transgene. Histological evaluation of 3 days lactating mammary tissue showed mammary epithelial cells from TgTg animals contained excessive secretory products, suggesting a block in cellular secretion mechanisms. In addition, the mammary cells displayed a cellular apical membrane puckering that extended into the alveoli lumens. These studies demonstrate an in vivo interaction of Tg-hLf expression and dietary retinoids in mouse mammary glands. While normal mammary gland physiology may not be representative by these experiments because high Lf concentrations during early lactation are abnormal, the demonstrated biological interaction suggests that typical periods of high Lf concentrations may have impact upon developing and involuting mammary glands.

Lactoferrin interaction with retinoid signaling: cell growth and apoptosis in mammary cells.

Lactoferrin (Lf) is a multifunctional iron-binding protein that was first identified in mammary secretions, but is synthesized by most mammalian tissues. The protein has a signal sequence that dictates secretion; it also has a nuclear localization sequence that facilitates entry into the cell nucleus. The mechanism of the latter action is currently unknown, but is thought to occur via a Lf receptor. Lactoferrin content of mammary tissue and secretions varies with developmental state; it is synthesized in mammary tissue at high levels during both pregnancy and involution, and during mammary infections. Using fluorescent (FITC)-labeled holo-bLf, we show that bovine primary epithelial cells and MCF-7 breast cancer cells do not translocate the exogenously added Lf to the nucleus after culture in serum free media (SFM). However, the supplementation of SFM with 1microM all-trans retinoic acid (atRA) caused breast cancer cells to gain the capacity to take up labeled bLf into the cell nucleus. Primary bovine mammary cells (MeBo) exhibited similar capacity in culture. This suggests that in addition to Lf, one or more components modulated by atRA, are necessary for nuclear translocation to occur. Transfection experiments with atRA treated MCF-7 cells containing retinoic acid response element reporter constructs showed that the extracellular application of lactoferrin alters reporter gene expression. Lactoferrin increased a DR5 luciferase response element in a dose-dependent manner only when atRA was applied. Immunocytochemical markers for the cell cycle (Ki67) and apoptotic events (Caspase-3 and PARP-85) showed that lactoferrin alters the atRA-induced phenotype, blocking apoptosis and maintaining cell cycle activity in both MCF-7 and MeBo cells in the presence of 1muM atRA. We propose that nuclear lactoferrin interacts with retinoic acid signaling pathways in cells and alters/blocks the signals so that cells remain in the cell cycle and/or do not enter the apoptotic pathway.