TEL-JAK2 mediates constitutive activation of the phosphatidylinositol 3'-kinase/protein kinase B signaling pathway.

A subset of chromosomal translocations that participate in leukemia involve activated tyrosine kinases. The ets transcription factor, TEL, undergoes translocations with several distinct tyrosine kinases including JAK2. TEL-JAK2 transforms cell lines to factor independence, and constitutive tyrosine kinase activity results in the phosphorylation of several substrates including STAT1, STAT3, and STAT5. In this study we have shown that TEL-JAK2 can constitutively activate the phosphatidylinositol 3'-kinase (PI 3'-kinase) signaling pathway. The regulatory subunit of PI 3'-kinase, p85, associates with TEL-JAK2 in immunoprecipitations, and this was shown to be mediated by the amino-terminal SH2 domain of p85 but independent of a putative p85-binding motif within TEL-JAK2. The scaffolding protein Gab2 can also mediate the association of p85. TEL-JAK2 constitutively phosphorylates the downstream substrate protein kinase B/AKT. Importantly, the pharmacologic PI 3'-kinase inhibitor, LY294002, blocked TEL-JAK2 factor-independent growth and phosphorylation of protein kinase B. However, LY294002 did not alter STAT5 tyrosine phosphorylation, indicating that STAT5 and protein kinase B activation mediated by TEL-JAK2 are independent signaling pathways. Therefore, activation of the PI 3'-kinase signaling pathway is an important event mediated by TEL-JAK2 chromosomal translocations.

A minimal cytoplasmic subdomain of the erythropoietin receptor mediates p70 S6 kinase phosphorylation.

Erythropoietin (EPO) is a lineage-restricted growth factor that is required for erythroid proliferation and differentiation. EPO stimulates the phosphorylation and activation of p70 S6 kinase (p70 S6K), which is required for cell cycle progression. Here, the minimal cytoplasmic domains of the EPO receptor (EPO-R) required for p70 S6K activation were determined.Ba/F3 cells were stably transfected with wild-type (WT) EPO-R or EPO-R carboxyl-terminal deletion mutants, designated by the number of amino acids deleted from the cytoplasmic tail (-99, -131, -221). Transfected cells were growth factor deprived and then stimulated with EPO. p70 S6K, JAK2, IRS-2, and ERK1/2 phosphorylation/activation were examined. The ability of transfected 3-phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase 1 (PDK1) to reconstitute p70 S6K phosphorylation in EPO-R mutants also was determined. Phosphorylation and activation of p70 S6K, JAK2, IRS-2, and ERK1/2 in Ba/F3 cells transfected with EPO-R-99 or EPO-R-99Y343F were similar to WT EPO-R. In contrast, EPO-dependent p70 S6K phosphorylation/activation, as well as IRS-2 and ERK1/2 phosphorylation, were minimal or absent in cells transfected with EPO-R-131 or EPO-R-221. JAK2 phosphorylation was reduced significantly in cells transfected with EPO-R-131 and abolished with EPO-R-221. To examine the role of PDK1, a kinase known to phosphorylate p70 S6K, Ba/F3 EPO-R-131 cells were transiently transfected with PDK1. WT constitutively active PDK1 restored p70 S6K phosphorylation in Ba/F3 EPO-R-131 cells but not in Ba/F3 EPO-R-221 cells. The results demonstrate that a minimal cytoplasmic subdomain of the EPO-R extending between -99 and -131 is required for p70 S6K phosphorylation and activation. The results also demonstrate that PDK1 is a critical component in this signaling pathway, which requires the presence of domains between -131 and -221 for its activation of p70 S6K.

A common epitope is shared by activated signal transducer and activator of transcription-5 (STAT5) and the phosphorylated erythropoietin receptor: implications for the docking model of STAT activation.

Erythropoietin (EPO) specifically activates the Janus kinase JAK2 and the transcription factor signal transducer and activator of transcription-5 (STAT5). All members of the STAT family are tyrosine phosphorylated in response to cytokine stimulation at a conserved carboxy-terminal tyrosine, Y694, in the case of STAT5. To determine structural features important for STAT signaling, we generated an activation-specific STAT5 antibody using a phosphopeptide containing amino acids 687 to 698 of STAT5 as antigen. This antibody specifically recognizes tyrosine- phosphorylated STAT5 but not nonphosphorylated STAT5. In immunoprecipitation reactions from cell lines and primary erythroblasts, 2 distinct polyclonal activation-specific STAT5 antibodies selectively immunoprecipitate the tyrosine phosphorylated EPO receptor (EPO-R) in addition to STAT5 under native and denaturing conditions. We propose that the activation-specific STAT5 antibody recognizes the 2 substrates to which the STAT5 SH2 domain interacts, namely, the tyrosine- phosphorylated EPO-R and STAT5 itself. Several studies have implicated EPO-R Y343, Y401, Y431, and Y479 in the recruitment of STAT5. Using a series of EPO-R tyrosine mutants expressed in Ba/F3 cells, we have shown that the activation-specific STAT5 antibody immunoprecipitates an EPO-R containing only 2 tyrosines at positions 343 and 401, confirming the importance of these tyrosines in STAT5 recruitment. These data uncover a novel aspect of STAT SH2 domain recognition and demonstrate the utility of activation-specific antibodies for examining the specificity of STAT-cytokine receptor interactions.

The SH2 inositol 5-phosphatase Ship1 is recruited in an SH2-dependent manner to the erythropoietin receptor.

Ship1 (SH2 inositol 5-phosphatase 1) has been shown to be a target of tyrosine phosphorylation downstream of cytokine and immunoregulatory receptors. In addition to its catalytic activity on phosphatidylinositol substrates, it can serve as an adaptor protein in binding Shc and Grb2. Erythropoietin (EPO), the primary regulator of erythropoiesis, has been shown to activate the tyrosine phosphorylation of Shc, resulting in recruitment of Grb2. However, the mechanism by which the erythropoietin receptor (EPO-R) recruits Shc remains unknown. EPO activates the tyrosine phosphorylation of Ship1, resulting in the interdependent recruitment of Shc and Grb2. Ship1 is recruited to the EPO-R in an SH2-dependent manner. Utilizing a panel of EPO-R deletion and tyrosine mutants, we have discovered remarkable redundancy in Ship1 recruitment. EPO-R Tyr(401) appears to be a major site of Ship1 binding; however, Tyr(429) and Tyr(431) can also serve to recruit Ship1. In addition, we have shown that EPO stimulates the formation of a ternary complex consisting of Ship1, Shc, and Grb2. Ship1 may modulate several discrete signal transduction pathways. EPO-dependent activation of ERK1/2 and protein kinase B (PKB)/Akt was examined utilizing a panel of EPO-R deletion mutants. Activation of ERK1/2 was observed in EPO-RDelta99, which retains only the most proximal tyrosine, Tyr(343). In contrast, EPO-dependent PKB activation was observed in EPO-RDelta43, but not in EPO-RDelta99. It appears that EPO-dependent PKB activation is downstream of a region that indirectly couples to phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase.

Identification of the erythropoietin receptor domain required for calcium channel activation.

Erythropoietin (Epo) activates a voltage-independent Ca2+ channel that is dependent on tyrosine phosphorylation. To identify the domain(s) of the Epo receptor (Epo-R) required for Epo-induced Ca2+ influx, Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells were transfected with wild-type or mutant Epo receptors subcloned into pTracer-cytomegalovirus vector. This vector contains an SV40 early promoter, which drives expression of the green fluorescent protein (GFP) gene, and a cytomegalovirus immediate-early promoter driving expression of the Epo-R. Successful transfection was verified in single cells by detection of GFP, and intracellular Ca2+ ([Ca]i) changes were simultaneously monitored with rhod-2. Transfection of CHO cells with pTracer encoding wild-type Epo-R, but not pTracer alone, resulted in an Epo-induced [Ca]i increase that was abolished in cells transfected with Epo-R F8 (all eight cytoplasmic tyrosines substituted). Transfection with carboxyl-terminal deletion mutants indicated that removal of the terminal four tyrosine phosphorylation sites, but not the tyrosine at position 479, abolished Epo-induced [Ca]i increase, suggesting that tyrosines at positions 443, 460, and/or 464 are important. In CHO cells transfected with mutant Epo-R in which phenylalanine was substituted for individual tyrosines, a significant increase in [Ca]i was observed with mutants Epo-R Y443F and Epo-R Y464F. The rise in [Ca]i was abolished in cells transfected with Epo-R Y460F. Results were confirmed with CHO cells transfected with plasmids expressing Epo-R mutants in which individual tyrosines were added back to Epo-R F8 and in stably transfected Ba/F3 cells. These results demonstrate a critical role for the Epo-R cytoplasmic tyrosine 460 in Epo-stimulated Ca2+ influx.

Fusion of the ets transcription factor TEL to Jak2 results in constitutive Jak-Stat signaling.

To study constitutive Janus kinase signaling, chimeric proteins were generated between the pointed domain of the ets transcription factor TEL and the cytosolic tyrosine kinase Jak2. The effects of these proteins on interleukin-3 (IL-3)-dependent proliferation of the hematopoietic cell line, Ba/F3, were studied. Fusion of TEL to the functional kinase (JH1) domain of Jak2 resulted in conversion of Ba/F3 cells to factor-independence. Importantly, fusion of TEL to the Jak2 pseudokinase (JH2) domain or a kinase-inactive Jak2 JH1 domain had no effect on IL-3-dependent proliferation of Ba/F3 cells. Active TEL-Jak2 constructs (consisting of either Jak2 JH1 or Jak2 JH2+JH1 domain fusions) were constitutively tyrosine-phosphorylated but did not affect phosphorylation of endogeneous Jak1, Jak2, or Jak3. TEL-Jak2 activation resulted in the constitutive tyrosine phosphorylation of Stat1, Stat3, and Stat5 as determined by detection of phosphorylation using activation-specific antibodies and by binding of each protein to a preferential GAS sequence in electrophoretic mobility shift assays. Elucidation of signaling events downstream of TEL-Jak2 activation may provide insight into the mechanism of leukemogenesis mediated by this oncogenic fusion protein.

A fluorescence investigation of the active site of Pseudomonas aeruginosa exotoxin A.

Single tryptophan mutant proteins of a catalytically active domain III recombinant protein (PE24) from Pseudomonas aeruginosa exotoxin A were prepared by site-directed mutagenesis. The binding of the dinucleotide substrate, NAD+, to the PE24 active site was studied by exploiting intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence for the wild-type, single Trp, and tryptophan-deficient mutant proteins. Various approaches were used to study the substrate binding process, including dynamic quenching, CD spectroscopy, steady-state fluorescence emission analysis, NAD+-glycohydrolase activity, NAD+ binding analysis, protein denaturation experiments, fluorescence lifetime analysis, steady-state anisotropy measurement, stopped flow fluorescence spectroscopy, and quantum yield determination. It was found that the conservative replacement of tryptophan residues with phenylalanine had little or no effect on the folded stability and enzyme activity of the PE24 protein. Dynamic quenching experiments indicated that when bound to the active site of the enzyme, the NAD+ substrate protected Trp-558 from solvent to a large extent but had no effect on the degree of solvent exposure for tryptophans 417 and 466. Also, upon substrate binding, the anisotropy of the Trp-417(W466F/W558F) protein showed the largest increase, followed by Trp-466(W417F/W558F), and there was no effect on Trp-558(W417F/W466F). Furthermore, the intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence exhibited the highest degree of substrate-induced quenching for the wild-type protein, followed in decreasing order by Trp-417(W466F/W558F), Trp-558(W417F/W466F), and Trp-466(W417F/W558F). These data provide evidence for a structural rearrangement in the enzyme domain near Trp-417 invoked by the binding of the NAD+ substrate.

Investigation into the catalytic role for the tryptophan residues within domain III of Pseudomonas aeruginosa exotoxin A.

The role of the tryptophan residues in the substrate-binding and catalytic mechanism of an enzymatically active C-terminal fragment of Pseudomonas aeruginosa exotoxin A was studied by individually or jointly replacing these residues with phenylalanine. Substitution of W-466 decreased the ADP-ribosyltransferase and NAD(+)-glycohydrolase activities by 20- and 3-fold, respectively. In contrast, substitution of W-417 or W-558 with phenylalanine both resulted in a 3-fold decrease in ADP-ribosyltransferase activity with, however, only a decrease by 40% and 70% in NAD(+)-glycohydrolase activity, respectively. Simultaneous replacement of W-466 and W-558 resulted in a 200-fold decrease in ADP-ribosyltransferase and an 6-fold decrease in NAD(+)-glycohydrolase activities, suggesting that W-466 may play a minor role in the transfer of ADP-ribose to the eEF-2 protein. Chemical modification of the tryptophan residues in the wild-type toxin fragment by N-bromosuccinimide revealed the presence of a single residue important for enzymatic activity, W-466, with a minor contribution from W-558. Additionally, tryptophan residues, W-305 and W-417, were refractory to oxidation by N-bromosuccinimide, which likely indicated the buried nature of these residues within the protein structure. Titration of the wild-type toxin fragment with NAD+ resulted in the quenching of the intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence to 58% of the initial value. Titration of the various single and a double tryptophan replacement mutant protein(s) indicated that W-558 and W-466 are responsible for the substrate-induced fluorescence quenching, with the former being responsible for the largest fraction of the observed quenching in the wild-type toxin. Consequently, a molecular mechanism is proposed for the substrate-induced fluorescence quenching of both W-466 and W-558. Furthermore, molecular modeling of the recent crystal structures for both exotoxin A (domain III fragment) and diphtheria toxin, combined with a variety of previous results, has led to the proposal for a catalytic mechanism for the ADP-ribosyltransferase reaction. This mechanism features a SN1 attack (instead of the previously purported SN2 mechanism) by the diphthamide residue (nucleophile) of eukaryotic elongation factor 2 on the C-1 of the nicotinamide ribose of NAD+, which results in an inversion of configuration likely due to steric constraints within the NAD(+)-toxin-elongation factor 2 complex.

In vitro enzyme activation and folded stability of Pseudomonas aeruginosa exotoxin A and its C-terminal peptide.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa exotoxin A(ETA) and its C-terminal, enzymatically active fragment (PE40, 375 residues) were studied by high-performance size-exclusion chromatography, steady-state and stopped-flow fluorescence spectroscopy, and circular dichroism spectroscopy. Both proteins have been overexpressed and purified by high-performance liquid chromatography. The effect of various activation conditions (pH, urea, and DTT) on enzymatic activity was studied. Upon enzymatic activation, structural changes induced within both proteins' structures were monitored, and these changes were correlated with concomitant alterations in the catalytic activity of the proteins. The pH optimum of enzymatic activity for both ETA and PE40 was between 7.0 and 8.0, decreasing to nearly zero at acidic (pH 5.0) and basic (pH 11-12) values. Analysis of the pH titration data revealed the presence of two distinct pKa values which implicate a His residue(s) (likely His-440 and -426) and a Tyr or Lys residue (possibly Tyr-481). The identity and possible role of an active site Lys residue is not known. Additionally, a significant increase in the Stokes radii of both proteins was detected when the pH was lowered from 8.0 to 6.0. The enzymatic activity of PE40 was not affected by urea or DTT, and its Stokes radius decreased monotonically with increasing urea concentration in the presence of DTT. In contrast, the enzymatic activity of ETA peaked when the protein was preincubated with 4.0 M urea, and this coincided with a large transition (increase) in the protein's Stokes radius between 3 and 5 M urea. Furthermore, loss of helical secondary structure of both PE40 and ETA commenced at approximately 2 M urea and progressively diminished at higher denaturant concentrations. The unfolding of both proteins in urea (and DTT) was reversible, and the free energies of unfolding were determined by both circular dichroism and fluorescence spectroscopy and were found to be 13.7 +/- 2.9 and 9.8 +/- 3.4 kJ/mol, respectively, for ETA and were 17.8 +/- 6.8 and 7.5 +/- 3.6 kJ/mol, respectively, for PE40. The refolding rate of PE40 was relatively rapid [t 1/2(1) = 27 s, t 1/2(2) = 624 s], which was in stark contrast to the refolding rate of ETA (t 1/2 = several hours). The relative refolding rates of PE40 and ETA help to explain the mechanism of in vitro enzyme activation and assay.