An amphipathic trans-acting phosphorothioate RNA element delivers an uncharged phosphorodiamidate morpholino sequence in mdx mouse myotubes.

An efficient method for the delivery of uncharged polyA-tailed phosphorodiamidate morpholino sequences (PMO) in mammalian cells consists of employing a synthetic 8-mer amphipathic trans-acting poly-2'-O-methyluridylic thiophosphate triester element (2'-OMeUtaPS) as a transfection reagent. Unlike the dTtaPS DNA-based element, this RNA element is potent at delivering polyA-tailed PMO sequences to HeLa pLuc 705 cells or to myotube muscle cells. However, much like dTtaPS, the 2'-OMeUtaPS-mediated internalization of PMO sequences occurs through an energy-dependent mechanism; macropinocytosis appears to be the predominant endocytic pathway used for cellular uptake. The transfected PMO sequences induce alternate splicing of either the pre-mRNA encoding luciferase in HeLa pLuc 705 cells or the excision of exon 23 from the pre-mRNA encoding dystrophin in myotube muscle cells of the mdx mouse model of muscular dystrophy with an efficiency comparable to that of commercial cationic lipid reagents but without detrimental cytotoxicity.

Conceptual "Heat-Driven" approach to the synthesis of DNA oligonucleotides on microarrays.

The discovery of deoxyribonucleoside cyclic N-acylphosphoramidites, a novel class of phosphoramidite monomers for solid-phase oligonucleotide synthesis, has led to the development of a number of phosphate protecting groups that can be cleaved from DNA oligonucleotides under thermolytic neutral conditions. These include the 2-(N-formyl-N-methyl)aminoethyl, 4-oxopentyl, 3-(N-tert-butyl)carboxamido-1-propyl, 3-(2-pyridyl)-1-propyl, 2-[N-methyl-N-(2-pyridyl)]aminoethyl, and 4-methythiobutyl groups. When used for 5'-hydroxyl protection of nucleosides, the analogous 1-phenyl-2-[N-methyl-N-(2-pyridyl)]aminoethyloxycarbonyl group exhibited excellent thermolytic properties, which may permit an iterative "heat-driven" synthesis of DNA oligonucleotides on microarrays. In this regard, progress has been made toward the use of deoxyribonucleoside cyclic N-acylphosphoramidites in solid-phase oligonucleotide syntheses without nucleobase protection. Given that deoxyribonucleoside cyclic N-acylphosphoramidites produce oligonucleotides with heat-sensitive phosphate protecting groups, blocking the 5'-hydroxyl of these monomers with, for example, the thermolabile 1-phenyl-2-[N-methyl-N-(2-pyridyl)]aminoethyloxycarbonyl group may provide a convenient thermo-controlled method for the synthesis of oligonucleotides on microarrays.

Inhibition of potentially anti-apoptotic proteins by antisense protein kinase C-alpha (Isis 3521) and antisense bcl-2 (G3139) phosphorothioate oligodeoxynucleotides: relationship to the decreased viability of T24 bladder and PC3 prostate cancer cells.

Isis 3521 and G3139 are 20- and 18-mer phosphorothioate oligonucleotides, respectively, targeted to the protein kinase C (PKC)-alpha and bcl-2 mRNAs. Treatment of T24 bladder and PC3 prostate carcinoma cells with full-length and 3'-truncation mutants of Isis 3521 causes down-regulation of PKC-alpha protein and mRNA. However, at the level of a 15-mer and shorter, down-regulation of mRNA expression is no longer observed. Further, no diminution in cellular viability, as measured by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide assay, in response to increasing concentrations of paclitaxel, can be observed for these shorter oligomers. These observations not only indicate that PKC-alpha protein expression can be down-regulated by both RNase H-dependent and -independent mechanisms but also that down-regulation of PKC-alpha is insufficient by itself to "chemosensitize" cells. G3139, which down-regulates bcl-2 protein and mRNA expression, also down-regulates PKC-alpha protein and mRNA expression but not that of PKC-betaI, -epsilon, or -zeta. However, the down-regulation of PKC-alpha and bcl-2 are not linked. When the carrier Eufectin 5 is employed, only bcl-2 is down-regulated in both T24 and PC3 cells at 50 nM oligonucleotide concentration. At 100 nM, both bcl-2 and PKC-alpha expression are down-regulated, and only at this concentration can "chemosensitization" to paclitaxel and carboplatin be observed. In contrast, the down-regulation of bcl-2 seems to be linked with that of RelA (p65). However, this too is also not sufficient for chemosensitization, even though it leads to the loss of expression of genes under the putative control of nuclear factor-kappaB and to detachment of the cells from plastic surfaces. These results underscore the complexity of the intracellular requirements for the initiation of chemosensitization to anti-neoplastic agents.

Strategies in the preparation of DNA oligonucleotide arrays for diagnostic applications.

This report emphasizes the interfacial chemistry that is required to ensure proper attachment of oligonucleotides onto the surface of microarrays. For example, strategies for the covalent attachment of pre-synthesized oligonucleotides to glass slides, gold films, polyacrylamide gel pads, polypyrrole films, and optical fibers are surveyed in an attempt to better define the parameters for optimal formation and detection of DNA hybrids. These parameters include among others, the nature and length of the linkers attaching oligonucleotides to the arrays, and the surface density of oligonucleotides required for unhindered hybridization with DNA targets. Sensitive detection methods such as the use of light-scattering techniques, molecular beacons, surface plasmon resonance, attenuated total internal reflection-FTIR, and the evanescent field excitation of fluorescence from surface-bound fluorophores have been developed to study the kinetics and specificity of hybridization events. Finally, the synthesis of oligonucleotides directly on glass surfaces and polypropylene sheets has been investigated to enable DNA sequencing by hybridization and achieve oligonucleotide densities of ca. 10(6) sequences per cm(2) on DNA chips.

The 2-(N-formyl-N-methyl)aminoethyl group as a potential phosphate/thiophosphate protecting group in solid-phase oligodeoxyribonucleotide synthesis.

[reaction in text] The 2-(N-formyl-N-methyl)aminoethyl deoxyribonucleoside phosphoramidite 1 has been synthesized and used in the solid-phase synthesis of an octadecathymidylic acid as a cost-efficient monomer for potential application in the preparation of therapeutic oligonucleotides. The 2-(N-formyl-N-methyl)aminoethyl group can be cleaved from oligonucleotides according to a unique thermolytic cyclodeesterification process at pH 7.0. In addition to being cost-effective, the use of 1 simplifies oligonucleotide postsynthesis processing by eliminating the utilization of concentrated ammonium hydroxide in oligonucleotide deprotection.

Deoxyribonucleoside phosphoramidites.

The detailed preparation of deoxyribonucleoside phosphoramidites bearing a 4-[N-methyl-N-(2,2,2-trifluoroacetyl)amino]butyl group for P(III) protection is presented. The use of this group circumvents nucleobase alkylation during oligonucleotide deprotection. Two syntheses of phosphoramidites starting from either a phosphordichloridite precursor or a bis-(N,N-diisopropylamino)chlorophosphine intermediate are described for the phosphinylation of suitably protected deoxyribonucleosides.

Synthetic strategies and parameters involved in the synthesis of oligodeoxyribonucleotides according to the phosphoramidite method.

The phosphoramidite approach has had a major impact on the synthesis of oligonucleotides. This unit describes parameters that affect the performance of this method for preparing oligodeoxyribonucleotides, as well as a number of compatible strategies. Milestones that led to the discovery of the approach are chronologically reported. Alternate strategies are also described to underscore the versatility by which these synthons can be obtained. Mechanisms of deoxyribonucleoside phosphoramidite activation, factors affecting condensation, and deprotection strategies are discussed.

Cleavage of oligodeoxyribonucleotides from controlled-pore glass supports and their rapid deprotection by gaseous amines.

A novel method for the deprotection of oligodeoxyribonucleotides has been developed. Gaseous amines such as ammonia or methylamine were employed under pressure to achieve mild and rapid deprotection conditions. For example, oligodeoxyribonucleotides having a (tert-butyl)phenoxyacetyl group for the protection of the exocyclic amino function of cytosine, adenine and guanine were released from controlled-pore glass supports and fully deprotected by ammonia or methylamine under gas phase conditions, at room temperature, within 35 or 2 min respectively.

CpG motifs present in bacteria DNA rapidly induce lymphocytes to secrete interleukin 6, interleukin 12, and interferon gamma.

Bacterial infection stimulates the host to mount a rapid inflammatory response. A 6-base DNA motif consisting of an unmethylated CpG dinucleotide flanked by two 5' purines and two 3' pyrimidines was shown to contribute to this response by inducing polygonal B-cell activation. This stimulatory motif is 20 times more common in the DNA of bacteria than higher vertebrates. The current work shows that the same motif induces the rapid and coordinated secretion of interleukin (IL) 6, IL-12, and interferon gamma (but not IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, or IL-10) in vivo and in vitro. Stimulatory CpG DNA motifs induced B, T, and natural killer cells to secrete cytokine more effectively than did lipopolysaccharide. Thus, immune recognition of bacterial DNA may contribute to the cytokine, as well as the antibody production characteristic of an innate inflammatory response.

An antisense oligodeoxynucleotide that depletes RI alpha subunit of cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase induces growth inhibition in human cancer cells.

Enhanced expression of the RI alpha subunit of cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase type I has been correlated with cancer cell growth. We provide evidence that RI alpha is a growth-inducing protein that may be essential for neoplastic cell growth. Human colon, breast, and gastric carcinoma and neuroblastoma cell lines exposed to a 21-mer human RI alpha antisense phosphorothioate oligodeoxynucleotide (S-oligodeoxynucleotide) exhibited growth inhibition with no sign of cytotoxicity. Mismatched sequence (random) S-oligodeoxynucleotides of the same length exhibited no effect. The growth inhibitory effect of RI alpha antisense oligomer correlated with a decrease in the RI alpha mRNA and protein levels and with an increase in RII beta (the regulatory subunit of protein kinase type II) expression. The growth inhibition was abolished, however, when cells were exposed simultaneously to both RI alpha and RII beta antisense S-oligodeoxynucleotides. The RII beta antisense S-oligodeoxynucleotide alone, exhibiting suppression of RII beta along with enhancement of RI alpha expression, led to slight stimulation of cell growth. These results demonstrate that two isoforms of cyclic AMP receptor proteins, RI alpha and RII beta, are reciprocally related in the growth control of cancer cells and that the RI alpha antisense oligodeoxynucleotide, which efficiently depletes the growth stimulatory RI alpha, is a powerful biological tool toward suppression of malignancy.

The synthesis of alternating alpha,beta-oligodeoxyribonucleotides with alternating (3'-->3')- and (5'-->5')-internucleotic linkages as potential therapeutic agents.

A simplified synthesis of alpha-2'-deoxyribonucleoside derivatives has been developed and the solid-phase preparation of antisense alpha,beta-oligodeoxyribonucleotides with alternating (3'-->3')- and (5'-->5')-internucleotidic phosphodiester linkages, targeted against HIV-1 tat mRNA, has been accomplished. Hybridization properties of these oligonucleotide analogues have been investigated.

Gyrase-dependent stabilization of pSC101 plasmid inheritance by transcriptionally active promoters.

The pSC101 plasmid encodes a cis-acting genetic locus termed par that ensures the stable inheritance of plasmids in a population of dividing cells. In the absence of selection, par-defective plasmids are lost rapidly from the bacterial population. We report here that the stability of par-deleted pSC101 derivatives is restored by introducing certain adventitious bacterial promoters onto the plasmid. Stabilization requires active transcription from the inserted promoter and is affected by the site and orientation of the insertion, the length of the nascent transcript and DNA gyrase activity. While a promotor-associated overall increase in negative superhelicity of plasmid DNA was observed, stabilized inheritance appeared to be dependent on localized rather than generalized supercoiling. Our demonstration that promoter-induced DNA supercoiling can mimic the effects of the pSC101 par locus provides evidence that the previously reported superhelicity-generating effects of par are intrinsic to its function.

Role of DNA superhelicity in partitioning of the pSC101 plasmid.

Previous work has shown that a cis-acting locus (termed par for partitioning) on the pSC101 plasmid accomplishes its stable inheritance in dividing cell populations. We report here that the DNA of pSC101 derivatives lacking the par region shows a decrease in overall superhelical density as compared with DNA of wild-type pSC101. Chemicals and bacterial mutations that reduce negative DNA supercoiling increase the rate of loss of par plasmids and convert normally stable plasmids that have minimal par region deletions into unstable replicons. topA gene mutations, which increase negative DNA supercoiling, reverse the instability of partition-defective plasmids that utilize the pSC101, p15A, F, or oriC replication systems. Our observations show that the extent of negative supercoiling of plasmid DNA has major effects on the plasmid's inheritance and suggest a mechanism by which the pSC101 par region may exert its stabilizing effects.

Interaction of AD2+D2 protein and simian virus 40 large T antigen with the large tumor antigen binding site I.

In a lytic infection of a permissive host by SV40, the large tumor antigen (T antigen), which is a product of early transcription of the SV40 A gene, has been previously shown to autoregulate its own transcription by binding to SV40 DNA. The DNA region to which T antigen binds most tightly was synthesized and subsequently introduced into the bacterial plasmid pUC8. The interaction of SV40 T antigen with the DNA duplexes, derived from both chemical synthesis and the recombinant plasmid, were examined by using nitrocellulose filter binding assays. An SV40-adenovirus hybrid protein, AD2+D2 protein, was also tested. The SV40 T antigen was found to bind more tightly than the hybrid protein. Kinetic assays demonstrated that the association rates for the two proteins with the DNA binding site were equivalent; however, once formed, the T antigen-DNA complex dissociated more slowly than the AD2+D2 protein-DNA complex.

Fluoride ion promoted deprotection and transesterification in nucleotide triesters.

Tetrabutylammonium fluoride will remove phenyl, trichloroethyl and cyanoethyl groups from nucleotides. In addition to the desired nucleotide products other results including chain cleavage, phosphofluoridates and cyanoethylated thymidine units may be obtained depending on the conditions used. Fluoride ion has been used to successfully exchange phenyl and trichloroethyl groups for methyl, ethyl and butyl groups in nucleotide triesters. This represents a rapid high yield route to a variety of phosphate esters. The synthesis of a novel nucleotide analogue in which two chains are bridged through their phosphates is described.