BODIPY-Based Molecules for Biomedical Applications.

BODIPY (4,4-difluoro-4-bora-3a,4a-diaza-s-indacene) derivatives have attracted attention as probes in applications like imaging and sensing due to their unique properties like (1) strong absorption and emission in the visible and near-infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, (2) strong fluorescence and (3) supreme photostability. They have also been employed in areas like photodynamic therapy. Over the last decade, BODIPY-based molecules have even emerged as candidates for cancer treatments. Cancer remains a significant health issue world-wide, necessitating a continuing search for novel therapeutic options. BODIPY is a flexible fluorophore with distinct photophysical characteristics and is a fascinating drug development platform. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the most recent breakthroughs in BODIPY-based small molecules for cancer or disease detection and therapy, including their functional potential.

Origin of Optoelectronic Contradictions in 3,4-Cycloalkyl[c]-chalcogenophenes: A Computational Study.

The planar morphology of the backbone significantly contributes to the subtle optoelectronic features of π-conjugated polymers. On the other hand, the atomistic tuning of an otherwise identical π-backbone could also impact optoelectronic properties systematically. In this manuscript, we compare a series of 3,4-cycloalkylchalcogenophenes by tuning them atomistically using group-16 elements. Additionally, the effect of systematically extending these building blocks in the form of oligomers and polymers is studied. The size of the 3,4-substitution affected the morphology of the oligomers. In addition, the heteroatoms contributed to a further alteration in their geometry and resultant optoelectronic properties. The chalcogenophenes, containing smaller 3,4-cycloalkanes, resulted in lower bandgap oligomers or polymers compared to those with larger 3,4-cycloalkanes. Natural bonding orbital (NBO) calculations were performed to understand the disparity alongside the contour maps of frontier molecular orbitals (FMO).

Effect of Chalcogenophenes on Chiroptical Activity of Twisted Tetracenes: Computational Analysis, Synthesis and Crystal Structure Thereof.

The synthesis of multiply substituted acenes is still a relevant research problem, considering their applications and future potential. Here we present an elegant synthetic protocol to afford tetra-peri-substituted naphthalene and tetracene from their tetrahalo derivatives by a Pd(0)-catalyzed C-C cross-coupling method in a single step. The newly synthesized tetracenes were characterized by NMR, HRMS, UV-vis spectrophotometry, and single-crystal X-ray diffraction (SCXRD). In addition, the first systematic computational study of the effect of chalcogenophenyl substitutions on the chiroptical properties of twistacenes was reported here. The gas phase computational studies using density functional theory (DFT) on a series of chalcogenophene-substituted tetracenes revealed that their chiroptical activity could be systematically increased via the atomistic tuning of peripheral substituents.

The effect of axial and helical chirality on circularly polarized luminescence: lessons learned from tethered twistacenes.

The effect of axial and helical twisting on the circularly polarized luminescence of acenes was studied both experimentally and computationally, using four series of tethered twisted acenes. We find that the combination of axial and helical chirality yields the highest anisotropy factors, and that the ratio between the absorption and emission anisotropy factors is an intrinsic property for twistacenes.

Novel Series of Diaminoanthraquinone-Based π-Extendable Building Blocks with Tunable Optoelectronic Properties.

We have achieved the first series of DAAQ-based building blocks, viz., n -TIPS-DAAQs (n = 1-4), and unraveled a rational design of their π-extension. Sequentially increasing numbers (n) of the exocyclic π-linkers showed (a) a systematic bathochromic shift in both absorption and emission spectra, (b) selective stabilization of the lowest-unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO), and (c) unselective changes in the S0/S1 states. To our surprise, the LUMO level of 4-TIPS-DAAQ (-3.72 eV) was found to be comparable to that of PC60BM.

Controlling the helicity of π-conjugated oligomers by tuning the aromatic backbone twist.

The properties of π-conjugated oligomers and polymers are commonly controlled by side group engineering, main chain engineering, or conformational engineering. The last approach is typically limited to controlling the dihedral angle around the interring single bonds to prevent loss of π-conjugation. Here we propose a different approach to conformational engineering that involves controlling the twist of the aromatic units comprising the backbone by using a tether of varying lengths. We demonstrate this approach by synthesizing an inherently twisted building unit comprised of helically locked tethered acenes, bearing acetylene end-groups to enable backbone extension, which was applied in a series of nine helical oligomers with varying backbone length and twist. We find that the optical and electronic properties of π-conjugated systems may be determined by the additive, antagonistic, or independent effects of backbone length and twist angle. The twisted oligomers display chiral amplification, arising from the formation of secondary helical structures.

The impact of twisting on the intersystem crossing in acenes: an experimental and computational study.

Due to their unique excited state dynamics, acenes play a dominant role in optoelectronic and light-harvesting applications. Their optical and electronic properties are typically tailored by side-group engineering, which often result in distortion of the acene core from planarity. However, the effect of such distortion on their excited state dynamics is not clear. In this work, we investigate the effect of twisting on the photophysics of acenes, which are helically locked to a defined twist angle by tethers of different lengths. Ultrafast transient absorption and time resolved fluorescence show a clear dependence of the rate of intersystem crossing with twisting. This trend is explained using quantum chemical calculations, showing an increase of spin-orbit coupling (SOC). At much earlier times, structural reorganization in S1, including coherent vibrational wave packet motions, is reflected in transient spectral changes. As predicted by theory, decreasing the length of diagonal tether induces enhanced activity and frequency blue-shifting of a normal vibration consisting of anthracene twisting against restraint of the tethering chain. Overall, these results serve as design principles for tuning photophysical properties of acenes via controlled twisting of their aromatic core.

Bending versus Twisting Acenes - A Computational Study.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are widely used in organic electronic devices. The electronic, magnetic, and optical properties of PAHs can be tuned by structural modifications to the aromatic backbone to introduce an inherent distortion from planarity, such as bending or twisting. However, it remains difficult to isolate and control the effects of such distortions. Here, we sought to understand how backbone twisting and bending affect the electronic properties of acenes, as models for larger PAHs. We found that, even when highly distorted from planarity (30° per ring), acenes maintain their aromatic character and π orbital delocalization with minor mixing of the σ and π orbitals. In addition, the energy gap between the HOMO and LUMO decreases with increasing twist, while the gap is hardly affected by bending, since the energy of both orbitals increase to a similar extent. For bent acenes in the triplet state, the spin becomes more localized with increasing bend, whereas twisting produces an evenly distributed spin delocalization. These findings can guide the synthesis of PAHs with tailored properties.

Raman and ROA analyses of twisted anthracenes: connecting vibrational and electronic/photonic structures.

In this article the Raman and Raman Optical Activity (ROA) spectra of a series of enantiomeric twisted anthracenes are presented. The evolution of their vibrational spectra is understood in the context of the variation of π-electron delocalization as a result of the twisting imparted by the belt structure and in terms of the modulation of the resonance Raman/ROA effects which are photonic properties also tuned by anthracene twisting. The Raman/ROA vibrational spectra are simulated by several theoretical approaches to account for their vibrational and electronic properties including the theoretical evaluation of resonance effects. We furthermore incorporate a vibrational and ROA activity dissection analysis as provided in the Pyvib2 program valid to establish correlations among vibrational modes of different molecules with different electronic structures and equivalent vibrational dynamics. This paper is one of the very first attempts to use ROA spectroscopy in π-conjugated molecules with twisted and helical morphologies that contrast with the well-known cases of ROA studies of chiral helicenes in which the impact of π-electron delocalization in the electronic/photonic/vibrational (Raman/ROA) spectra is negligible.

An unconventional route to an ambipolar azaheterocycle and its in situ generated radical anion.

Herein we report the synthesis, characterization and application of an azaheterocycle 4 obtained via an unprecedented C-N coupling. The neutral azaheterocycle undergoes one-electron reduction to form an air-stable radical anion in situ, which provides added benefit towards operational stability of the device during n-type charge transport. The unusual stability of this radical anion is due to the fact that the fused cyclopentane ring upon reduction forms aromatic cyclopentadienyl anion, and the negative charge delocalizes over the nearly planar azaheterocycle core. The present azaheterocycle can be considered as a mimic of a fullerene fragment, which shows balanced ambipolar charge transport in space charge limited current (SCLC) devices with moderate hole (µh) and electron (µe) mobilities (µh = 2.96 × 10-3 cm2 V-1 s-1 and µe = 1.11 × 10-4 cm2 V-1 s-1). Theoretical studies such as nucleus independent chemical shifts (NICS) calculations, anisotropy of the induced current density (ACID) plots, spin density mapping and anisotropic mobility calculations were performed to corroborate the experimental findings.

Relation between Morphology and Chiroptical Properties in Chiral Conducting Polymer Films: A Case Study in Chiral PEDOT.

The electronic properties of conducting polymers are influenced by their micro- and macrostructural orders, which can be tailored by substituent modification. However, while the effect of substituents on conducting polymers is extensively investigated, chiral substituents are far less studied. Furthermore, many chiral conducting polymers have regioirregular structures, which result in polymer films with inferior properties. In this work, we apply electronic circular dichroism (ECD) spectroscopy to study the morphological changes to the chiral polymers under different polymerization conditions. For this purpose, we investigated 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene (EDOT) derivatives having two stereogenic centers on each monomer and bearing methyl or phenyl side groups (dimethyl-EDOT and diphenyl-EDOT, respectively). Polymerizing the enantiomerically pure monomers produces regioregular and stereoregular dimethyl-PEDOT and diphenyl-PEDOT, respectively. The effect of the electrolyte and solvent on polymer film morphology was studied using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and ECD, showing a correlation between the polymer's morphology and the chiroptical properties of its films. We found that, for diphenyl-PEDOT, the combination of perchlorate anion electrolyte and acetonitrile solvent resulted in a unique morphology characterized by significant intermolecular interactions. These interactions were clearly observable in the ECD spectra in the form of exciton couplings, whose presence was supported by TD-DFT calculations. A small enantiomeric excess was sufficient to induce very intense ECD signals, demonstrating chiral amplification in electropolymerized films.

Effect of Twisting on the Capture and Release of Singlet Oxygen by Tethered Twisted Acenes.

The use of polyaromatic hydrocarbons to capture and release singlet oxygen is of considerable importance in materials chemistry, synthesis, and photodynamic therapy. Here we studied the ability of a series of tethered twistacenes, possessing different degrees of backbone twist, to capture and release singlet oxygen via the reversible Diels-Alder reaction. When the twistacene acts as both a sensitizer and a diene, the photo-oxidation rate depends on the extinction coefficient of the irradiation wavelength. However, when the twistacenes function solely as a diene, the rate of photo-oxidation increases with increasing twist. The rate of the reverse reaction, the singlet oxygen release, also increases with increasing twist. The calculated transition state energy decreases with increasing twist, which can explain the observed trend. The presence of the tether significantly increases the reversibility of the reaction, which can proceed in repeated forward and reverse cycles in very high yield under mild conditions, as required for molecular switches.

Photoexcited triplet states of twisted acenes investigated by Electron Paramagnetic Resonance.

Twisting of the acene backbone out of planarity in twisted acenes leads to a variation in their optical and electronic properties. The effect of increasing twist angles on the properties of the photoexcited triplet states of a series of anthracene-based helically tethered twisted acenes is investigated here by Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) spectroscopy. Increasing signal intensities with increasing twist angles indicate increased intersystem crossing efficiencies for the twisted molecules compared to the untethered reference compound. Variations in the electron spin polarisation observed in the transient EPR spectra, in particular for the compound with the shortest tether, imply changes in the sublevel population kinetics depending on molecular geometry. Changes in the zero-field splitting parameters and in the proton hyperfine couplings for compounds with short tethers and therefore higher twist angles point towards a slight redistribution of the spin density compared to the parent compound. The experimental results can be explained by considering both an increase in twist angle and a related decrease in the dihedral angle between the phenyl side groups and the acene core. The observation of a clear excitation-wavelength dependence suggests preferential excitation of different molecular conformations, with conformers characterised by higher twist angles selected at higher wavelengths.

The Consequences of Twisting Nanocarbons: Lessons from Tethered Twisted Acenes.

The properties of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are determined by their size, shape, and functional groups. Equally important is their curvature, since deviation from planarity can affect their optical, electronic, and magnetic properties and also induce chirality. Acenes, which can be viewed as one-dimensional nanocarbons, are often twisted out of planarity. Although twisting is expected to affect the above-mentioned properties, it is often overlooked. This Account focuses on helically locked twistacenes (twisted acenes) having different twist angles and the effect of twisting on their electronic and optical properties. Various synthetic approaches to inducing backbone twist in acenes are discussed, with a focus on the introduction of a diagonal tether across the core, as this minimizes confounding substituent effects. Using such tethered acenes as our model, we then discuss the effects of twisting the aromatic core on twistacene properties. Electronic properties. Increasing the degree of twist only slightly affects the HOMO and LUMO energy levels. Twisting leads to a small increase in the HOMO level and a decrease in the LUMO level, which produces an overall decrease in the HOMO-LUMO gap. Optical properties. As the degree of twist increases, a slight bathochromic shift is observed in the absorption spectra, in accordance with the decrease in the HOMO-LUMO gap. The fluorescence quantum efficiency and the fluorescence lifetime also decrease. This is likely to be related to an increasing rate of intersystem crossing, which arises from increased spin-orbit coupling. In addition, computational studies indicate that the S0-T1 energy gap decreases with increasing twist. Chiroptical properties. Increased twisting results in a larger Cotton effect and anisotropy factor, with the anisotropy factors of Ant-Cn being higher than those of longer helicenes. The parallel orientation of electric and magnetic transition dipole moments in twistacenes underlies this behavior and renders them as excellent chiroptical materials. The same trend is observed for the radical cations of twistacenes, which absorb in the NIR spectral region. Conjugation and delocalization. Twisting the anthracene radical cation up to 40° (13° per benzene ring) does not significantly affect spin delocalization, with the EPR spectra of twistacene radical cations showing that only slight localization occurs. This is in line with computational studies, which show only a small decrease in π-overlap for large acene twist. Overall, modifying the length of the tether in diagonally tethered acenes allows chemists to control core twist and to induce chirality. Twisting affects key optical, electronic, and chiroptical properties of acenes. Consequently, controlling the twist angle can improve the future design of nanocarbons with desired properties.

Artificial Photosynthesis with Electron Acceptor/Photosensitizer-Aptamer Conjugates.

Sequence-specific aptamers act as functional scaffolds for the assembly of photosynthetic model systems. The Ru(II)-tris-bipyridine photosensitizer is conjugated by different binding modes to the antityrosinamide aptamer to yield a set of photosensitizer-aptamer binding scaffolds. The N-methyl-N'-(3-aminopropane)-4,4'-bipyridinium electron acceptor, MV2+, is covalently linked to tyrosinamide, TA, to yield the conjugate TA-MV2+. The tyrosinamide unit in TA-MV2+ acts as a ligand for anchoring TA-MV2+ to the Ru(II)-tris-bipyridine-aptamer scaffold, generating the diversity of photosensitizer-aptamer/electron acceptor supramolecular conjugates. Effective electron transfer quenching in the photosynthetic model systems is demonstrated, and the quenching efficiencies are controlled by the structural features of the conjugates. The redox species generated by the photosensitizer-aptamer/electron acceptor supramolecular systems mediate the ferredoxin-NADP+ reductase, FNR, catalyzed synthesis of NADPH, and the Pt-nanoparticle-catalyzed evolution of hydrogen (H2). The novelty of the study rests on the unprecedented use of aptamer scaffolds as functional units for organizing photosynthetic model systems.

Radical cations of twisted acenes: chiroptical properties and spin delocalization.

We introduce the first series of enantiopure twistacene radical cations, which form reversibly upon chemical or electrochemical oxidation. Their vis-NIR chiroptical properties (Cotton effect and anisotropy factor) increase systematically with the backbone twist. The hyperfine constants observed by EPR demonstrate significant spin delocalization even for large backbone twist angles.

Chiroptical Properties of Twisted Acenes: Experimental and Computational Study.

Acenes that are twisted out of planarity are expected to display chiroptical properties. However, the effect of twisting on the chiroptical properties of acenes has not been investigated computationally or experimentally. Herein, we present a computational investigation of the chiroptical properties of anthracenes to pentacenes, combined with an experimental study using a series of helically locked acenes, twisted to different torsional angles in their enantiopure form. The lowest energy transition, which is relatively weak in acenes, becomes dominant in their circular dichroism spectra upon twisting. We find that the rotational strength of acenes consistently increases with increasing twist. The experimental data obtained from enantiopure tethered twistacenes show the same trend as the calculated result, with a strong Cotton effect and anisotropy factor, rendering twisted acenes as excellent chiroptical materials.

Helically Locked Tethered Twistacenes.

Twisting linear acenes out of planarity affects their electronic and optical properties, and induces chirality. However, it is difficult to isolate the effect of twisting from the substituent effect. Moreover, many twistacenes (twisted acenes) readily racemize in solution. Here, we introduce a series of twistacenes having an anthracene backbone diagonally tethered by an n-alkyl bridge, which induces a twist of various angles. This allows us to systematically monitor the effect of twisting on electronic and optical properties. We find that absorption is bathochromically shifted with increasing twist, while fluorescence quantum efficiency drops dramatically. The tethered twistacenes were isolated to their enantiomerically pure form, displaying strong chiroptical properties and anisotropy factor ( g-value). No racemization was observed even upon prolonged heating, rendering these tethered twistacenes suitable as enantiopure helical building units for π-conjugated backbones.

Selenium-Containing Fused Bicyclic Heterocycle Diselenolodiselenole: Field Effect Transistor Study and Structure-Property Relationship.

The first application of the diselenolodiselenole (C4Se4) heterocycle as an active organic field effect transistor materials is demonstrated here. C4Se4 derivatives (2a-2d) were obtained by using a newly developed straightforward diselenocyclization protocol, which includes the reaction of diynes with selenium powder at elevated temperature. C4Se4 derivatives exhibit strong donor characteristics and planar structure (except 2d). The atomic force microscopic analysis and thin-film X-ray diffraction pattern of compounds 2a-2d indicated the formation of distinct crystalline films that contain large domains. A scanning electron microscopy study of compound 2b showed development of symmetrical grains with an average diameter of 150 nm. Interestingly, 2b exhibited superior hole mobility, approaching 0.027 cm(2) V(-1) s(-1) with a transconductance of 9.2 µS. This study correlate the effect of π-stacking, Se···Se intermolecular interaction, and planarity with the charge transport properties and performance in the field effect transistor devices. We have shown that the planarity in C4Se4 derivatives was achieved by varying the end groups attached to the C4Se4 core. In turn, optoelectronic properties can also be tuned for all these derivatives by end-group variation.

Diselenolodiselenole: a selenium containing fused heterocycle for conjugated systems.

The synthesis of new conjugated building blocks, diselenolodiselenole (C4Se4) derivatives, is described for the first time. The structural and optoelectronic properties of C4Se4-derivatives are tuned by varying end-capping aromatic substituents. In cyclic voltammetry, all C4Se4-derivatives show two reversible oxidation peaks.