Relative importance of factors associated with duration of lactation in mothers of better socioeconomic status.

PIP: In 1976, researchers surveyed 3999 mothers in urban and rural Hyderabad, India. 90% of the mothers breast fed their children. Al began breast feeding immediately after birth. Average age of complete weaning ranged from 5.1 months for the urban elite to 13.3 months for rural women. Postpartum amenorrhea varied from an average of 3.5 months for the urban elite to 11.4 months for rural women. There were significant differences between the different socioeconomic groups in terms of lactation and postpartum amenorrhea (p.05). Both duration of breast feeding and postpartum amenorrhea were positively correlated. In terms of the urban population, 60.7% of the urban elite, 42.75 of the urban middle class, and 37.5% had weaned their infants at or before 5 months. Urban elite children were more likely to receive food supplements earlier than rural children (p.05). On average, urban elite mothers introduced supplements at 5 months while rural mothers introduced them at 10 months. As the educational level of the mothers increased the percentage of lactating mothers decreased irrespective of the socioeconomic class. As the duration of lactation increased the levels of children born alive, mortality among live born siblings, and education of both parents decreased significantly (p.05). Urban elite and middle income women who breast fed for 6 months were more likely to be healthy, have children with higher body weights, and have commercial baby food than those who did for 6 months (p.05). Maternal age, parity, and mortality among siblings were positively associated with longer periods of lactation and postpartum amenorrhea. The leading indicator for duration of lactation among all urban women was age of introduction of supplements. The leading indicator for duration of postpartum amenorrhea was duration of lactation.^ieng

Infant feeding practices of working mothers in an urban area.

PIP: Information on infant feeding practices was collected from 410 educated, working mothers in a urban area. The mean duration for breast feeding was 4.1 months. Early introduction of supplements was the rule. About 61% of mothers used commercial baby foods, though with certain problems. More than 90% of mothers considered breast milk as the best food for infants. About 63% expressed a desire to have more knowledge on their responsibilities and infant care. Working mothers found it difficult to work outside their homes and at the same time care for their infants, because of several problems. They preferred joint families for better child care. The majority of women wanted well-maintained creches, an incease in number and duration of breaks for nursing their infants, and the option of part-time work to help them give proper care to the children. The problems with commercial baby food concerned the proportion of water to powder, which most mothers (62.1%) found too high for the infant to digest. Creche facilities near the place of work were available to 27.8% of mothers. Only 20% used them. 72% of mothers who had no creche facilities used relatives, neighbors, or servants.^ieng

Lipid and trace element composition of human milk.

The recent work on lipids and trace elements in human milk has been reviewed. Lipids in human milk are specially important for the development of the central nervous system of the infant, in addition to being a source of nutrients. Recent studies revealed that the concentration of total lipids was low in milk samples from Indian women belonging to the low socio-economic group: linoleic acid constituted a high percent of the fatty acids. The bile-stimulated lipase activity of milk was higher in Ethiopian than in Swedish milk samples. Vitamin D sulphate, the water soluble conjugate of vitamin D, was present in higher concentrations than that reported for vitamin D in lipid fraction; however, the antirachitic activity of vitamin D sulphate is yet to be studies. Copper, zinc, and magnesium concentrations were high in sampled obtained during the first month of lactation. Copper and zinc levels continued to fall gradually till the end of one year lactation. The mean concentrations of zinc and copper in mature milk samples from Indian mothers were similar to those in American samples, though both the samples showed wide variation. A high proportion of zinc in milk was bound to proteins.

Nutritional status of pantothenic acid in Indian pregnant and nursing women.

Investigations on nutritional status of pantothenic acid were carried out in 57 pregnant women and 24 lactating mothers belonging to the low socio-economic group. Fourteen non-pregnant, non-lactating women from the same group served as controls. Pregnant subjects had blood levels of the vitamin comparable to those of the control group while cord blood contained significantly higher concentrations of patnothenic acid than did the maternal blood. The urinary excretion of the vitamin in pregnant women was comparable to that in the control group. Blood and milk levels of the vitamin in the nursing women were in the reported range.

Metabolic effects of oral contraceptives in monkeys fed adequate protein & low proein diets.

PIP: The effects of 2 oral contraceptives, Ovulen and Norlestrin, were studied in monkeys fed adequate protein and low protein diets. The experiment was carried out in parts. In the first one, the administration of contraceptives was cyclic and similar to that employed in human subjects. In the other experiments, the contraceptives were given continuously and an attempt was made to exaggerate the deleterious effects of the oral contraceptive on the liver by including small doses of a known hepatotoxic agent, aflatoxin (AT). In Experiment 1, 45 female monkeys were divided into 2 groups of 20 and 25 and received an adequate protein (16%) and low protein diet (4%) respectively. Each monkey was fed 1/5 of a tablet of Ovulen or Norlestrin orally for 3 weeks, and then administration was discontinued for 1 week. In Experiment 2, 35 female monkeys were divided into 7 groups of 5 each. All the animals recieved 4% protein diet. 5 groups were tube fed at the rate of 100 cal/kg body weight, while 2 groups were given diet ad libitum. Group I received the diet alone while groups II-V received 10 mcg AT, 25 mcg AT, 10 mcg AT plus 1/5 Ovulen tablets, and 25 mcg AT plus 1/5 Ovulen tablet respectively daily. Groups VI and VII received the diet ad libitum but were orally fed 75 mcg AT and 75 mcg AT plus 1/5 Ovulen tablet respectively. Serum glutamic-oxalacetic transaminase activity and alkaline phosphatase activity were studied at regular intervals after the administation of oral contraceptives in the experiments. Serum proteins and hemoglobin were also determined. Monkeys fed oral contraceptives showed increased serum glutamic-oxalacetic transaminase and alkaline phosphatase activities irrespective of the level of protein in the diet. Livers of animals receiving oral contraceptives were morphologically similar to the controls fed respective diets. The experiments were conducted for a period of almost 2 years.^ieng