Prevalence of Protozoan Pathogens Among Diarrheic Children Under 5 Years in Public Hospital of Ethiopia During the Global COVID 19 Pandemic.

Acute childhood diarrhea is one of the leading causes of childhood morbidity and mortality in sub-Saharan African countries. Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia lamblia are the common cause of childhood diarrhea in the region. However, there are only few studies on protozoa causing diarrhea in sub-Saharan African countries. This study was conducted to investigate the relative prevalence and explore risk factors of E. histolytica and G. lamblia among diarrheic children of under 5 years in a public hospital of Ethiopia. A retrospective study was conducted among diarrheic children at Hiwot Fana hospital, Ethiopia. Records of all diarrheic children less than 5 years who had sought medical treatment in the hospital from September 1, 2020 to December 31, 2022 were included. Data were collected from 1257 medical records of the children using a structured data-collection format. Data were entered into an Excel sheet and exported into SPSS version 22 for data processing and analysis. Descriptive statistical tests, Chi-square, and logistic region analysis were applied to determine predictors of protozoa infections. Of the 1257 cases, 962 (76.5%) had watery diarrhea and the remaining 239 (19.0%) had dysentery. The combined prevalence of E. histolytica and G. lamblia among diarrheic children was 11.8% (95% CI: 9.6-13.4). As the age of children increased, the frequency of these two protozoan infections was significantly increased compared to children with other causes. There were more diarrhea cases during the summer season including those associated with E. histolytica and G. lamblia. This study revealed that 1 in 10 causes of diarhhea among young children in the study area was likely caused by E. histolytica and G. lamblia. These findings call for community-based safe water and food safety interventions in order to reduce childhood diarrhea caused by protozoan infections in resource-poor settings.

Occurrence of Diarrheagenic Pathogens and Their Coinfection Profiles in Diarrheic Under Five Children and Tracked Human Contacts in Urban and Rural Settings of Eastern Ethiopia.

Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli, Campylobacter, Nontyphoidal Salmonella, and Shigella are common cause of childhood diarrhea in countries like Ethiopia, but data on their sources and coinfection profiles is limited. A cross sectional study was conducted from November 2021 to January 2023 to determine the prevalence, coinfection, and monthly occurrence rates of major diarrheagenic bacteria in diarrheic under five children and asymptomatic contacts at urban and rural settings in Ethiopia. A total of 345 stool samples were collected from; 262 diarrheic children visiting Hiwot Fana Hospital, Kersa, and Adelle Health Centers; and 83 caretakers and siblings through case based contact tracing. Samples were analyzed using standard laboratory procedures and the overall prevalence of enteric pathogens was 26.96%, with the highest isolation rate during the winter and peaks of 73.91% in February. The occurrence of the pathogens in children and tracked contacts was 27.86 and 24.09%, respectively. In our study, 8.53% coinfection and 23.66% single pathogen infection was recorded in diarrheic children. The study also showed 4.51 and 3.88% of diarrhea in children from urban and rural had attributed to bacterial coinfection, respectively. The most prevalent pathogen in diarrheic children was Diarrheagenic E. coli (10.31%), and followed by Campylobacter. On the other hand, Diarrheagenic E. coli was the second dominant bacteria following Shigella in the traced contacts, with prevalence of 8.43% and 9.64%, respectively. Based on the study site, the prevalence of Diarrheagenic E. coli and Nontyphoidal Salmonella was higher in children from urban than those from rural. However, the occurrence of each pathogen had no significant differences (P > .05) between settings. The high pathogens occurrence rate in the current study indicates the need for strong control strategies and better child carrying and treatment of diarrheal diseases at both urban and rural settings. Further studies on possible sources and factors attributing to the occurrence of enteric pathogens in children are also recommended.

Determination of Tetracycline Residues in Kidney and Muscle of Beef Cattle Slaughtered in Dire Dawa and Harar Municipal Abattoirs, Eastern Ethiopia.

Background: Antibiotics are among the most widely used drugs in farm animals for therapeutic and prophylactic purposes. However, the antibiotic residues in meat are a serious public health concern due to their harmful effects on consumer health. Besides this problem, there is limited information on the level of the antibiotic residues, including tetracycline residues. Therefore, this study was aimed to determine the tetracycline residues in the kidney and muscle samples of beef cattle in Harar town and Dire Dawa city. Methods: A study was conducted on 500 randomly selected carcass (250 kidney and 250 muscle samples) slaughtered at Dire Dawa and Harar municipal slaughterhouses between December 2018 and December 2019. The samples were collected aseptically and screened for tetracycline residues by thin layer chromatography. Then, presumptive positive samples were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography to get a quantitative outcome. Descriptive statistics were used to determine the frequency, mean, or standard deviation to determine the summary values and distribution of the outcomes. Finally, the data was analyzed using SPSS version 21 software. Results: Out of 500 samples, oxytetracycline residues were detected in 84% of the samples. However, tetracycline and doxycycline were not detected in all samples. Among the kidney and muscle samples collected from Dire Dawa and Harar abattoirs, 109 (87.2%) and 101 (80.8%) were positive for oxytetracycline, respectively. Oxytetracycline residue levels in Dire Dawa ranged from 57 to 607 µg/kg for the kidney and 10.14 to 435 µg/kg for muscle samples. Among the samples collected from Harar, the concentration of oxytetracycline residues ranged from 16 to 433 µg/kg and 6 to 435 µg/kg for kidney and muscle samples, respectively, at Harar slaughterhouses. About 22.0% of muscle samples collected from Dire Dawa and 17.8% from Harar town had oxytetracycline residues above maximum residue limits. Conclusions: In general, the study revealed that oxytetracycline residues were prevalent among tetracycline residues analyzed from kidney and muscle samples in the study areas. Thus, there is a risk of consumer exposure to these antibiotic residues that may have human health effects. Therefore, awareness creation and strict regulation is needed by the regulatory authorities for the use of antimicrobial drugs in the livestock industry.

Detection and Determination of Staphylococcus aureus in Camel Milk and Associated Factors in Fedis, Eastern Hararghe, Ethiopia.

Background: Camel milk is the key food for pastoralists in the arid and semi-arid areas of the eastern lowlands of Ethiopia. Unless it is handled under good hygienic conditions, milk can be a good medium for bacterial growth and can lead to foodborne diseases caused by various pathogenic microorganisms, such as Staphylococcus aureus. The current study was aimed to determine the prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus in raw camel milk and associated factors in Fedis, Eastern Ethiopia. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted from December 2, 2018 to May 26, 2019 in Fedis, Eastern Hararghe, Ethiopia. The questionnaire was used to determine the hygienic practices of camel milkers and sellers. Laboratory analysis was conducted to determine the level of Staphylococcus aureus. A total of 156 (78 from households and 78 from selling sites) milk samples were collected randomly from selected camel herd owners and selling sites for the isolation and enumeration of Staphylococcus aureus. Data analysis was carried out using SPSS software version 22.0. Finally, Chi-square and Fisher's exact tests were used to analyze the data. A P-value of .05 was considered as the cut-off point for statistical significance. Results: A total of 156 samples, including 78 samples of raw milk from the households and 78 samples from the market were purchased to determine Staphylococcus aureus. Out of 156 samples, Staphylococcus aureus was detected in 60 (38.5%) samples, of which 27 (34.6%) and 33 (42.3%) were among those collected from household and market, respectively. The overall mean Staphylococcus aureus count was 4.83 log CFU/mL, with household and market samples accounted for 2.76 and 5.08 log CFU/mL, respectively. Furthermore, 23 (38.3%) of the samples were contaminated with Staphylococcus aureus beyond the recommended level (4-5 log CFU/mL). There was a statistically significant association (P-value of <.05) between the prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus and other variables such as age of the camel, parity, lactation stages, and sources of milk. Conclusion: More than one-third of milk samples were contaminated with Staphylococcus aureus at levels higher than the maximum permitted level. The findings of the current study suggests that there is a potential risk of foodborne infection and intoxication. Therefore, implementation of adequate hygiene and safety practices is very important to prevent the consumption of contaminated fruit juices, which leads to foodborne illness.

Prevalence and epidemiological distribution of selected foodborne pathogens in human and different environmental samples in Ethiopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Bacterial Foodborne Pathogens (FBP) are the commonest cause of foodborne illness or foodborne diseases (FBD) worldwide. They contaminate food at any stages in the entire food chain, from farm to dining-table. Among these, the Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli (DEC), Non typhoidal Salmonella (NTS), Shigella spp. and Campylobacter spp. are responsible for a large proportion of illnesses, deaths; and, particularly, as causes of acute diarrheal diseases. Though existing studies indicate the problem may be severe in developing countries like Ethiopia, the evidence is commonly based on fragmented data from individual studies. A review of published and unpublished manuscripts was conducted to obtain information on major FBP and identify the gaps in tracking their source attributions at the human, animal and environmental interface. A total of 1753 articles were initially retrieved after restricting the study period to between January 2000 and July 2020. After the second screening, only 51 articles on the humans and 43 on the environmental sample based studies were included in this review. In the absence of subgroups, overall as well as human stool and environmental sample based pooled prevalence estimate of FBP were analyzed. Since, substantial heterogeneity is expected, we also performed a subgroup analyses for principal study variables to estimate pooled prevalence of FBP at different epidemiological settings in both sample sources. The overall random pooled prevalence estimate of FBP (Salmonella, pathogenic Escherichia coli (E. coli), Shigella and Campylobacter spp.) was 8%; 95% CI: 6.5-8.7, with statistically higher (P <  0.01) estimates in environmental samples (11%) than in human stool (6%). The subgroup analysis depicted that Salmonella and pathogenic E. coli contributed to 5.7% (95% CI: 4.7-6.8) and 11.6% (95% CI: 8.8-15.1) respectively, of the overall pooled prevalence estimates of FBD in Ethiopia. The result of meta-regression showed, administrative regional state, geographic area of the study, source of sample and categorized sample size all significantly contributed to the heterogeneity of Salmonella and pathogenic E. coli estimates. Besides, the multivariate meta- regression indicated the actual study year between 2011 and 2015 was significantly associated with the environmental sample-based prevalence estimates of these FBP. This systematic review and meta-analysis depicted FBP are important in Ethiopia though majority of the studies were conducted separately either in human, animal or environmental samples employing routine culture based diagnostic method. Thus, further FBD study at the human, animal and environmental interface employing advanced diagnostic methods is needed to investigate source attributions of FBD in one health approach.

Reproductive Diseases and Disorders of Female Camels: An Assessment and Pathological and Bacteriological Study in Eastern Ethiopia.

Camels are the most efficient domesticated animals in arid and semiarid areas of the world. In Ethiopia, they are the main livestock kept to sustain the livelihoods of pastoralists, as camels are used for milk and meat production and also for transportation. However, she-camel reproductive diseases are one of the major constraints for camel-producing communities. A cross-sectional study was conducted from November 2018 to December 2019 to identify and characterize pathological lesions and isolate possible bacteria associated with reproductive diseases and disorders in she-camels slaughtered at Dire Dawa and Babille municipal abattoirs. A total of 155 study animals were examined by recruiting all she-camels slaughtered during every abattoir visit. Overall, 562 reproductive organs, the ovaries, oviducts, uterus, and cervix, were examined through observation, palpation, and incision, and the animal- and organ-level pathological lesion prevalence were found to be 29% and 64.6%, respectively. Degenerative changes, inflammatory lesions (endometritis and salpingitis), growth disturbances (e.g., ovarian hypoplasia), and noninflammatory lesions (e.g., noninflammatory edema) were the identified pathological lesions. Occurrences of pathological changes among reproductive organs had differences where significantly the highest proportion (p = 0.00) was observed in the uteri. Of the 119 microbiological samples processed, 77.3% were positive for single or mixed bacterial genera, from which 7 different bacterial isolates and 14 other unidentified Gram-negative bacteria were detected. E. coli, Salmonella, and Staphylococcus spp. were the most frequently isolated organisms with 28.2%, 26.9%, and 12.8% frequencies, respectively. The result of the questionnaire survey showed 74% of the respondents had culled the she-camel at productive age because of poor reproductive performance associated with refused mating, abortion, and repeat breeding (poor conception). On the other hand, a majority of camel herders had poor to no information and access to modern veterinary services; nevertheless, they had good indigenous knowledge on how to manage reproductive abnormalities. Considering the importance of camels in our study area, further research on camel reproductive diseases and abnormalities with wider sample and epidemiology need to be conducted using molecular and hormonal assay techniques.

Prevalence and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Pattern of E. coli O157:H7 Isolated from Traditionally Marketed Raw Cow Milk in and around Asosa Town, Western Ethiopia.

A cross-sectional study was conducted from October 2014 to July 2015 to determine the prevalence and populations of E. coli as well as the prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility of E. coli O157:H7 isolated from raw milk. Biochemical and serological tests methods were used to confirm E. coli and E. coli O157:H7 and isolates were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility test using the agar disc diffusion method. Out of 380 raw milk samples examined, 129 (33.9%) and 11 (2.9%) were contaminated with E. coli and E. coli O157:H7, respectively. The highest prevalence was recorded in samples obtained from vendors (39.1%, 4.978 ± 0.180 log10/ml) compared with samples from farmers (28.1%, 3.93 ± 0.01 log10/ml) with significant differences (P = 0.02). The frequency of contamination was higher in the samples collected from milk that was stored and transported in plastic containers (39.4%) than in the containers made of stainless steel (23.0%) (P = 0.002). The antimicrobial susceptibility profile showed that E. coli O157:H7 were resistant to tetracycline (81.8%), streptomycin (81.8%), and kanamycin (63.6%). Milk samples were produced and handled under poor hygienic conditions, stored, and transported in inappropriate containers and under temperature abuse conditions leading to high health risk to the consumers. Additional studies would be needed to establish association between the occurrences of E. coli O157:H7 in raw milk and all the risk factors involved in and around Asosa town.

Status of bovine tuberculosis and its zoonotic implications in Borana zone, Southern Ethiopia.

A cross-sectional study was carried out from April 2015 to June 2016 to estimate the status of bovine tuberculosis (BTB), assessment of community's current knowledge, and zoonotic importance on this disease in Borana zone, southern Ethiopia. In this study, comparative intradermal tuberculin (CIDT) test, structured questionnaires, and retrospective data were used, while the result indicated 3.8% prevalence at individual animal level with 5.6% (31/554) of doubtful reactors. Among related risk factors included, old animals were significantly infected by BTB than young one (χ 2 = 32.005, P = 0.001). Parity number again showed significant difference (χ 2 = 29.163, P = 0.001) where animals with many parity were more reactive to conducted test than few parity numbers. Animals born in the breeding center managed under semi-intensive production system were more infected (χ 2 = 10.795, P = 0.029) than those brought from outside of the center. Questionnaire survey in this study indicated that out of 130 interviewed respondents, only 30% pastoralists knew what BTB mean; whereas the level of individual knowledge from interviewed showed about 72.3% of respondents had poor understanding of BTB and only about 11.5% of them knew its zoonotic importance. Meat eating habit of communities in the area were culturally inhabited to eat cooked meat and only 12.3% (16/130) of respondents gave response on habit of eating both raw and cooked meat. Milk drinking habit of pastoralist in the area showed about 79.2% drunk raw milk and the rest 20.8% used both raw and boiled milk. A retrospective data from Yabello Hospital indicated that current prevalence of human TB as 38.79% and showing the disease was highly increasing from year to year in the study area. This implies a great importance of human tuberculosis and its future concern in Borana zone. From this, there should be detail awareness of communities on BTB, its zoonotic importance, and the need of further investigation to develop control and prevention strategies according to the pastoral settings.