Analyzing speckle contrast for HiLo microscopy optimization.

HiLo microscopy is a recently developed technique that provides both optical sectioning and fast imaging with a simple implementation and at a very low cost. The methodology combines widefield and speckled illumination images to obtain one optically sectioned image. Hence, the characteristics of such speckle illumination ultimately determine the quality of HiLo images and the overall performance of the method. In this work, we study how speckle contrast influence local variations of fluorescence intensity and brightness profiles of thick samples. We present this article as a guide to adjust the parameters of the system for optimizing the capabilities of this novel technology.

The application of proteomics in defining the T cell antigens of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

The complete sequencing of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis genome offers a unique opportunity to fully elucidate the biology of this human pathogen. One aspect of significant importance is the definition of T cell antigens. This report describes the development and implementation of a proteomic approach to defining such antigens. Large quantities of subcellular protein fractions of M. tuberculosis were resolved by two-dimensional liquid phase electrophoresis (2-D LPE), resulting in 355 and 299 fractions of culture filtrate and cytosolic proteins, respectively. Analysis of these fractions against splenocytes of C57Bl/6 mice infected with M. tuberculosis resulted in the identification of 37 fractions that stimulated a dominant T cell response, as measured by the production of interferon-gamma. Additionally, when the 2-D LPE fractions were assayed against splenocytes harvested at 10 and 40 days post infection significant changes in the T cell response were observed. Molecular characterization of the proteins contained in each of the 38 immunodominant fractions by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry resulted in the identification of 30 individual proteins. Many of these represented previously defined antigens. However 17 of these proteins were novel T cell antigens. The data presented demonstrate that proteomics offers a rapid and facile approach for elucidation of immunodominant T cell antigens of pathogenic bacteria.

Toll-like receptor 2-dependent inhibition of macrophage class II MHC expression and antigen processing by 19-kDa lipoprotein of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) induces vigorous immune responses, yet persists inside macrophages, evading host immunity. MTB bacilli or lysate was found to inhibit macrophage expression of class II MHC (MHC-II) molecules and MHC-II Ag processing. This report characterizes and identifies a specific component of MTB that mediates these inhibitory effects. The inhibitor was extracted from MTB lysate with Triton X-114, isolated by gel electroelution, and identified with Abs to be MTB 19-kDa lipoprotein. Electroelution- or immunoaffinity-purified MTB 19-kDa lipoprotein inhibited MHC-II expression and processing of both soluble Ags and Ag 85B from intact MTB bacilli. Inhibition of MHC-II Ag processing by either MTB bacilli or purified MTB 19-kDa lipoprotein was dependent on Toll-like receptor (TLR) 2 and independent of TLR 4. Synthetic analogs of lipopeptides from Treponema pallidum also inhibited Ag processing. Despite the ability of MTB 19-kDa lipoprotein to activate microbicidal and innate immune functions early in infection, TLR 2-dependent inhibition of MHC-II expression and Ag processing by MTB 19-kDa lipoprotein during later phases of macrophage infection may prevent presentation of MTB Ags and decrease recognition by T cells. This mechanism may allow intracellular MTB to evade immune surveillance and maintain chronic infection.

Homogeneity of antibody responses in tuberculosis patients.

The goals of the present study were twofold: (i) to compare the repertoires of antigens in culture filtrates of in vitro-grown Mycobacterium tuberculosis that are recognized by antibodies from noncavitary and cavitary tuberculosis (TB) patients and (ii) to determine the extent of variation that exists between the antigen profiles recognized by individual TB patients. Lipoarabinomannan-free culture filtrate proteins of M. tuberculosis were fractionated by one-dimensional (1-D) and 2-D polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, and the Western blots were probed with sera from non-human immunodeficiency virus (non-HIV)-infected cavitary and noncavitary TB patients and from HIV-infected, noncavitary TB patients. In contrast to earlier studies based on recombinant antigens of M. tuberculosis which suggested that antibody responses in TB patients were heterogeneous (K. Lyashchenko et al., 1998, Infect. Immun. 66:3936-3940, 1998), our studies with native culture filtrate proteins show that the antibody responses in TB patients show significant homogeneity in being directed against a well-defined subset of antigens. Thus, there is a well-defined subset of culture filtrate antigens that elicits antibodies during noncavitary and cavitary disease. In addition, another set of antigens is recognized primarily by cavitary TB patients. The mapping with individual patient sera presented here suggests that serodiagnostic tests based on the subset of antigens recognized during both noncavitary and cavitary TB will enhance the sensitivity of antibody detection in TB patients, especially in difficult-to-diagnose, smear-negative, noncavitary TB patients.

Different Toll-like receptor agonists induce distinct macrophage responses.

We previously reported that gram-negative bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) activates cells via Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4, whereas the mycobacterial cell wall glycolipid lipoarabinomannan (LAM) activates cells via TLR2. We also identified a secreted TLR2 agonist activity in short-term culture filtrates of Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacilli, termed soluble tuberculosis factor (STF). Here we show that STF contains mannosylated phosphatidylinositol (PIM) and that purified PIM possesses TLR2 agonist activity. Stimulation of RAW 264.7 macrophages by LPS, LAM, STF, and PIM rapidly activated nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB, activator protein-1 (AP-1), and mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases. These TLR agonists induced similar levels of NF-kappaB and AP-1 DNA-binding activity, as well as trans-activation function. Unexpectedly, these TLR agonists induced tumor necrosis factor alpha secretion, whereas only LPS was capable of inducing interleukin-1beta and nitric oxide secretion. Thus, different TLR proteins are still capable of activating distinct cellular responses, in spite of their shared capacities to activate NF-kappaB, AP-1, and MAP kinases.

Interleukin-1 or tumor necrosis factor-alpha augmented the cytotoxic effect of mycobacteria on human fibroblasts: application to evaluation of pathogenesis of clinical isolates of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and M. avium complex.

Mycobacteria-induced in vitro events reflecting human tuberculosis can contribute to the evaluation of the pathogenesis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB). In this study, we propose such an in vitro method based on live mycobacteria-induced cytotoxicity to human cell lines. When human lung-derived normal fibroblast cell line MRC-5 was infected with various strains of mycobacteria (M. tuberculosis H(37)Rv and H(37) Ra, Mycobacterium avium 427S and 2151SmO, and Mycobacterium bovis BCG Pasteur and Tokyo), the fibroblasts were killed by mycobacteria according to the degree of virulence. Other human originated macrophage (U-937, THP-1), myeloid (HL-60), and epithelial carcinoma (A549) cell lines exhibited a similar cytotoxic response to virulent mycobacteria. MRC-5 was most susceptible to virulent mycobacteria among various human cell lines examined. The cytotoxicity was enhanced by the proinflammatory cytokines, interleukin-1 (IL-1) and tumor necrosis factor-a (TNF-alpha), which in the absence of mycobacteria stimulate the growth of normal human fibroblasts. This in vitro evaluation system was applied to clinical isolates of drug-sensitive MTB (DS-MTB), drug-resistant MTB (DR-MTB) including multidrug-resistant (MDR-MTB), and M. avium complex (MAC). MTB strains (n = 24) exhibited strong cytotoxic activity, but MAC strains (n = 5) had only weak activity. Furthermore, there was no significant difference in cytotoxicity between DS-MTB (n = 11) and DR-MTB (n = 13). Collectively, these results suggest that this new in vitro system is useful for evaluating the pathogenesis of mycobacteria and that there was no difference in the pathogenesis between drug-susceptible and drug-resistant clinical isolates.

Identification of putative exported/secreted proteins in prokaryotic proteomes.

The increasing number of bacterial genomes being sequenced fuels an equal demand for methods to rapidly analyze the proteomes of these organisms. One group of proteins of pressing importance is the exported/secreted proteins, given their dominant immunogenicity and role in pathogenesis. With this in mind, a weight matrix algorithm and two artificial neural networks, one based on amino acid position within the N-terminus and the other on amino acid frequency, were developed for identification of such proteins. The neural networks and a hybrid method, combining the weight matrix algorithm and the amino acid frequency neural network, were tested independently against a standard data set of secreted and cytoplasmic proteins to determine their accuracy in predicting secreted prokaryotic proteins. The results of these analyses demonstrated that the amino acid position neural network provided the highest accuracy (Mathews correlation coefficient of 0.93) in predicting secreted proteins of Gram-negative bacteria, whereas the hybrid method was best (Mathews correlation coefficient of 0.97) for prediction of Gram-positive secreted proteins. These two methods were integrated into a single program (ExProt) designed to analyze whole proteomes. In addition to protein localization, ExProt also contains a neural network trained to identify the most probable signal peptidase I cleavage site of secreted proteins. When tested against the standard protein data set ExProt correctly predicted 73.5 and 84.5% of the cleavage sites in Gram-positive and Gram-negative secreted proteins, respectively. Comparative analysis of Gram-negative, Gram-positive, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and Archaea proteomes with ExProt revealed that the fraction of putative exported/secreted proteins encoded by bacterial genomes ranged from 8% for Methanococcus jannaschii to 37% for Mycoplasma pneumoniae.

Induction of inducible nitric oxide synthase-NO* by lipoarabinomannan of Mycobacterium tuberculosis is mediated by MEK1-ERK, MKK7-JNK, and NF-kappaB signaling pathways.

Nitric oxide (NO*) expression by inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) is an important host defense mechanism against Mycobacterium tuberculosis in mononuclear phagocytes. The objective of this investigation was to examine the role of mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase (MAPK) and nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) signaling pathways in the regulation of iNOS and NO* by a mycobacterial cell wall lipoglycan known as mannose-capped lipoarabinomannan (ManLAM). Specific pharmacologic inhibition of the extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK) or NF-kappaB pathway revealed that both these signaling cascades were required in gamma interferon (IFN-gamma)-ManLAM-induced iNOS protein and NO2- expression in mouse macrophages. Transient cotransfection of dominant-negative protein mutants of the c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway revealed that the MAP kinase kinase 7 (MKK7)-JNK cascade also mediated IFN-gamma-ManLAM induction of iNOS promoter activity whereas MKK4 did not. Overexpression of null mutant IkappaBalpha, a potent inhibitor of NF-kappaB activation, confirmed that the IkappaBalpha kinase (IKK)-NF-kappaB signaling pathway enhanced IFN-gamma-ManLAM-induced iNOS promoter activity. By contrast, activated p38mapk inhibited iNOS induction. These results indicate that combined IFN-gamma and ManLAM stimulation induced iNOS and NO. expression and that MEK1-ERK, MKK7-JNK, IKK-NF-kappaB, and p38mapk signaling pathways play important regulatory roles.

Tuberculosis vaccine development: recent progress.

Recent years have seen a renewed effort to develop new vaccines against tuberculosis. As a result, several promising avenues of research have developed, including the production of recombinant vaccines, auxotrophic vaccines, DNA vaccines and subunit vaccines. In this article we briefly review this work, as well as consider the pros and cons of the animal models needed to test these new vaccines. Screening to date has been carried out in mouse and guinea pig models, which have been used to obtain basic information such as the effect of the vaccine on bacterial load, and whether the vaccine can prevent or reduce lung pathology. The results to date lead us to be optimistic that new candidate vaccines could soon be considered for evaluation in clinical trials.

Cell-mediated immune response to tuberculosis antigens: comparison of skin testing and measurement of in vitro gamma interferon production in whole-blood culture.

Although delayed-type hypersensitivity skin testing with tuberculin purified protein derivative (PPD) is the standard for tuberculosis screening, its variability suggests the need for a more sensitive, noninvasive test. An in vitro whole-blood assay has been proposed as an alternative. Using health care worker volunteers, we confirmed the correlation between PPD skin test (PPD-ST) results (positive, induration of >15 mm) and a standardized gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) assay, QuantiFERON-TB (Q-IFN), manufactured by CSL Biosciences in Australia, and we evaluated Mycobacterium tuberculosis culture subfractions as potential substitutes for PPD. Twenty healthy volunteers with positive PPD-ST results and 20 PPD-ST-negative controls were enrolled. Whole blood was cultured with human PPD antigens (HuPPD), Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) PPD, phytohemagglutinin (PHA), and four M. tuberculosis culture subfractions: low-molecular-weight culture, filtrate, culture filtrate without lipoarabinomannan, soluble cell wall proteins, and cytosolic proteins, all developed from M. tuberculosis strain H(37)RV. Secretion of IFN-gamma (expressed as international units per milliliter) was measured by an enzyme immunoassay. The PPD or subculture fraction response as a percentage of the PHA response was used to determine positivity. Sixteen of 20 PPD-ST-positive individuals were classified as M. tuberculosis positive by Q-IFN, and 1 was classified as MAC positive. Sixteen of 20 PPD-ST-negative individuals were M. tuberculosis negative by Q-IFN, 2 were MAC positive, and 2 were M. tuberculosis positive. The tuberculosis culture subfractions stimulated IFN-gamma production in PPD-ST-positive volunteers, and significant differences could be seen between the two PPD-ST groups with all subfractions except soluble cell wall protein; however, the response was variable and no better than the Q-IFN PPD. The agreement between the Q-IFN test and the PPD-ST was good (Cohen's kappa = 0.73). The Q-IFN assay can be a useful tool in further studies of immune responses to M. tuberculosis antigens.

Induction of direct antimicrobial activity through mammalian toll-like receptors.

The mammalian innate immune system retains from Drosophila a family of homologous Toll-like receptors (TLRs) that mediate responses to microbial ligands. Here, we show that TLR2 activation leads to killing of intracellular Mycobacterium tuberculosis in both mouse and human macrophages, through distinct mechanisms. In mouse macrophages, bacterial lipoprotein activation of TLR2 leads to a nitric oxide-dependent killing of intracellular tubercle bacilli, but in human monocytes and alveolar macrophages, this pathway was nitric oxide-independent. Thus, mammalian TLRs respond (as Drosophila Toll receptors do) to microbial ligands and also have the ability to activate antimicrobial effector pathways at the site of infection.

Secretion of an acid phosphatase (SapM) by Mycobacterium tuberculosis that is similar to eukaryotic acid phosphatases.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis secretes a large number of polypeptides with broad biological and immunological functions. We describe here the characterization of a 28-kDa acid phosphatase of M. tuberculosis (SapM) localized to the culture filtrate. The mature protein demonstrated biochemical characteristics similar to those of the bacterial nonspecific acid phosphatases. However, SapM yielded significant sequence homology to fungal acid phosphatases and not those of bacteria. Thus, SapM may represent a new class of bacterial nonspecific acid phosphatases.

A genetic mechanism for deletion of the ser2 gene cluster and formation of rough morphological variants of Mycobacterium avium.

A major phenotypic trait of the Mycobacterium avium complex is the ability to produce rough and smooth colony variants. The chemical basis of this morphological variation is the loss of an antigenic surface structure, termed glycopeptidolipid (GPL), by rough variants. Using M. avium serovar 2 strain 2151 as a model system, this laboratory previously reported that rough variants arise via the deletion of large genomic regions encoding GPL biosynthesis. One such deletion encompasses the gene cluster (ser2) responsible for production of the serovar 2 GPL haptenic oligosaccharide. In this study, nucleotide sequencing revealed that both ends of the ser2 gene cluster are flanked by a novel insertion sequence (IS1601) oriented as direct repeats. Detailed analyses of the site of deletion in the genome of M. avium 2151 Rg-1 demonstrated that a single copy of IS1601 remained and that the ser2 gene cluster was deleted by homologous recombination. This same deletion pattern was observed for 10 out of 15 rough colony variants tested. Additionally, these studies revealed that IS1601 contains portions of three independent insertion sequences. This report is the first to define the precise genetic basis of colony variation in Mycobacterium spp. and provides further evidence that homologous recombination between insertion sequence elements can be a primary determinant of genome plasticity in these bacteria.

Mycobacterial lipoarabinomannan induces an inflammatory response in the mouse lung. A role for interleukin-1.

Lipoarabinomannan (LAM), a cell wall component of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, induces the production of cytokines and chemokines in vitro. Interleukin-1 (IL-1) contributes to granuloma formation in tuberculosis (TB), and exerts effects via the IL-1 receptor type I (IL-1R). To determine the effects of LAM in the pulmonary compartment in vivo and to establish the role of endogenous IL-1 herein, normal and IL-1R deficient ((-/-)) mice were intranasally inoculated with LAM (50 microgram). In normal mice, LAM resulted in a neutrophilic cell influx into the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). LAM also induced increases in the lung concentrations of macrophage inflammatory protein-2 (MIP-2), keratinocyte (KC), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), IL-1alpha, and IL-1beta. IL-1R(-/-) mice had less influx of granulocytes in their BALF than wild-type mice. Also, lung TNF-alpha levels were lower in IL-1R(-/-) mice. LAM may be an important stimulator of innate immunity in infection with M. tuberculosis via mechanisms that involve endogenous IL-1 activity.

Serodiagnostic potential of culture filtrate antigens of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Our studies of the humoral responses of tuberculosis (TB) patients have defined the repertoire of culture filtrate antigens of Mycobacterium tuberculosis that are recognized by antibodies from cavitary and noncavitary TB patients and demonstrated that the profile of antigens recognized changes with disease progression (K. Samanich et al., J. Infect. Dis. 178:1534-1538, 1998). We have identified several antigens with strong serodiagnostic potential. In the present study we have evaluated the reactivity of cohorts of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-negative, smear-positive; HIV-negative, smear-negative; and HIV-infected TB patients, with three of the candidate antigens, an 88-kDa protein, antigen (Ag) 85C, and MPT32, and compared the reactivity of the same patient cohort with the 38-kDa antigen and Ag 85A. We have also compared the reactivity of native Ag 85C and MPT32 with their recombinant counterparts. The evaluation of the reactivity was done by a modified enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay described earlier (S. Laal et al., Clin. Diag. Lab. Immunol. 4:49-56, 1997), in which all sera are preadsorbed against Escherichia coli lysates to reduce the levels of cross-reactive antibodies. Our results demonstrate that (i) antigens identified on the basis of their reactivity with TB patients' sera provide high sensitivities for serodiagnosis, (ii) recombinant Ag 85C and MPT32, expressed in E. coli, show reduced reactivity with human TB sera, and (iii) of the panel of antigens tested, the 88-kDa protein is the most promising candidate for serodiagnosis of TB in HIV-infected individuals. Moreover, these results reaffirm that both the extent of the disease and the bacterial load may play a role in determining the antigen profile recognized by antibodies.

Diagnosis of tuberculosis by a visually detectable immunoassay for lipoarabinomannan.

Recovery of tubercle bacilli from sputum, tissue, or body fluid is the standard for the diagnosis of tuberculosis (TB) although this process is technically demanding and relatively insensitive. We have developed a simplified, visually detectable, colloidal gold-based serological assay to qualitatively detect IgG directed against the mycobacterial cell wall component lipoarabinomannan (LAM). The objective of this investigation is to determine the accuracy of this assay in patients with active pulmonary TB and in control patients with or without latent infection. In patients with active TB, the sensitivity of anti-LAM IgG was 85 to 93%. In five patients with active TB who were smear-negative, all tested positive for anti-LAM IgG. The specificity of the test depended on the presence of tuberculous infection. In U.S. citizens comprised of young healthy adults and rheumatology patients, the specificity was 100%. In an at-risk population for tuberculous infection who were either tuberculin skin test-negative or positive, the specificity was 89%. The negative and positive predictive values of the test were 98% and 52%, respectively. We conclude that anti-LAM IgG immunoassay is relatively sensitive and specific for active TB and thus, a potentially useful screening test for active TB.

Enhancement of the human T cell response to culture filtrate fractions of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by microspheres.

An improved method of assessment of the human immune response against Mycobacterium tuberculosis antigens will assist the development of new vaccines or diagnostic reagents. In this study, we have analyzed human T cell responses to culture filtrate fractions (CFF) of actively replicating M. tuberculosis strain H37Rv using peripheral blood mononuclear cells from healthy PPD skin test positive and negative individuals. Adsorption of CFF onto polystyrene microspheres, that were approximately the size of the M. tuberculosis (bead-adsorbed antigens, BAA) significantly enhanced IFN-gamma production compared to soluble antigens (SA) in PPD skin test positive individuals in an antigen-specific manner. Further, BAA induced activation of both CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cell subsets. However, CD4(+) responses in general were higher and their antigenic repertoire was wider than the CD8(+) responses. By contrast, CD8(+) responses were strongest to the lower molecular weight BAA. When CFF were chemically coupled to carboxyl modified microspheres (bead-coupled antigens, BCA), induction of IFN-gamma was similar to BAA. Enhancement of T cell responses to particulate M. tuberculosis antigens may prove useful in vaccine design strategies.

Effective preexposure tuberculosis vaccines fail to protect when they are given in an immunotherapeutic mode.

Two vaccine formulations previously shown to induce protective immunity in mice and prevention of long-term necrosis in guinea pigs were tested as potential immunotherapeutic vaccines in mice earlier infected by aerosol with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Neither vaccine had any effect on the course of the infection in the lungs, but both reduced the bacterial load in the spleen. Similarly, inoculation with Mycobacterium bovis BCG had no effect whatsoever and, if given more than once, appeared to induce an increasingly severe pyogranulomatous response in the lungs of these mice.

Crystal structure of the secreted form of antigen 85C reveals potential targets for mycobacterial drugs and vaccines.

The antigen 85 (ag85) complex, composed of three proteins (ag85A, B and C), is a major protein component of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis cell wall. Each protein possesses a mycolyltransferase activity required for the biogenesis of trehalose dimycolate (cord factor), a dominant structure necessary for maintaining cell wall integrity. The crystal structure of recombinant ag85C from M. tuberculosis, refined to a resolution of 1.5 A, reveals an alpha/beta-hydrolase polypeptide fold, and a catalytic triad formed by Ser 124, Glu 228 and His 260. ag85C complexed with a covalent inhibitor implicates residues Leu 40 and Met 125 as components of the oxyanion hole. A hydrophobic pocket and tunnel extending 21 A into the core of the protein indicates the location of a probable trehalose monomycolate binding site. Also, a large region of conserved surface residues among ag85A, B and C is a probable site for the interaction of ag85 proteins with human fibronectin.

MTSA-10, the product of the Rv3874 gene of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, elicits tuberculosis-specific, delayed-type hypersensitivity in guinea pigs.

In a search for new skin test reagents specific for tuberculosis, we found that the antigen encoded by gene Rv3874 of Mycobacterium tuberculosis elicited delayed-type hypersensitivity in M. tuberculosis-infected guinea pigs but not in control animals immunized with Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) or Mycobacterium avium. The antigen, which was named MTSA-10 (for M. tuberculosis-specific antigen 10), is a prime candidate for a component of a new tuberculin that will allow discrimination by a skin test of latent M. tuberculosis infection from vaccination with BCG or from sensitization with environmental, nontuberculous mycobacteria.