Stay-Leave Decision-Making Among Women Victims of Domestic Violence in Israel: Background, Interactional, and Environmental Factors.

The study examined the factors that contribute to stay-leave decision-making of women who are domestic violence victims, focusing on background factors (origin, education, and occupational status); interactional factors (severity of violence, previous separations, and previous stays in a shelter); and social factors (social support and woman's expectations of the shelter). In addition, it examined the contribution of the interaction of woman's expectations of the shelter × psychological violence to the woman's decision to leave/stay with her partner. Six months after returning to the community, 221 women who had stayed in a shelter for at least 3 months were located: 92 were Israeli-born Jews (41.6%), 49 were Israeli-born Arabs (22.2%), 51 were Former Soviet Union immigrants (23.1%), and 29 were Ethiopian immigrants (13.1%). Of them, 56.6% reported returning to their partners, and 43.4% reported leaving their partners. Education, occupational status, psychological violence severity, previous shelter stays, familial support, and expectations of having concrete needs fulfilled by the shelter made a significant contribution to the woman's leaving the abusive relationship. Furthermore, Israeli Arab women were more likely to stay with their partners. Finally, the interaction of the expectation that concrete needs would be met × psychological violence made a significant contribution to leaving the relationship. The study emphasizes the need to expand the resources of domestically abused women and also highlights specific groups requiring special attention upon shelter entry: Arab women, women who previously stayed in shelters, and women characterized by a lack of resources and a high degree of psychological violence.

Length of Women's Stays in Domestic Violence Shelters: Examining the Contribution of Background Variables, Level of Violence, Reasons for Entering Shelters, and Expectations.

Women's shelters are one of the most important services established for women who are victims of intimate partner violence against women (IPVAW). Studies indicate that women undergo positive processes in shelters, and the longer the stay in the shelter, the more successful the woman will be in leaving the cycle of violence. However, the literature also reveals a remarkable variance in the length of women's shelter stays, and very little research has been conducted to understand the factors contributing to this variance. The current research focused on the contribution of demographics (ethnic origin, age, education, number of children, and employment situation), history of violence (level of violence, characteristics of violence, and separation attempts from the partner), reasons for entering the shelter, and expectations of the shelter framework to the length of women's shelter stays. Research participants consisted of 506 women living in 12 shelters in Israel. The findings revealed a variance in the length of the women's stays in accordance with their ethnic origins. Women who had immigrated to Israel from Ethiopia or from the former Soviet Union (FSU) stayed in shelters for longer periods of time than did Israeli-born Arab women, who stayed in shelters for significantly shorter periods of time than did Israeli-born Jewish women. There was no contribution of the demographic variables to the variance of length of the woman's shelter stay. In addition, previous separations, emotional abuse, and applying to the shelter following the decision of a child protection worker explained 12% of the variance in the length of the woman's shelter stay. The findings point to a specific profile that seems to predict a woman's longer stay in shelters for women who are victims of intimate partner violence.

Domestic Violence in Arab Society: A Comparison of Arab and Jewish Women in Shelters in Israel.

The aim of the current study was to address a gap in the literature by determining prevalence, specific types of violence, and risk factors of intimate partner violence (IPV) among Israeli born Arab women compared with Israeli born Jewish women. The following measures were compared: demographic and socioeconomic measures; measures relating to the characteristics of the violence, that is, the three types of violence (physical, emotional, and verbally threatening), sense of danger, and history of violence in childhood; family support levels; and perpetrator characteristics. The sample consisted of 154 Israeli born Arab women and 149 Israeli born Jewish women who were staying in shelters for victims of domestic violence in Israel. A comparison of the two groups revealed that the Arab women were exposed to more physical violence and received less family support than did their Jewish counterparts. The proportion of Arab perpetrators with access to weapons was higher than that of Jewish perpetrators, whereas the proportion of police complaints against Jewish perpetrators was higher than that against Arab perpetrators. Arab women were also younger, less educated, and less a part of the workforce than Jewish women. The contribution of the woman's age to the variance in levels of physical violence was negative and significant. In contrast, the contribution of her sense of danger, and various perpetrator characteristics, was positive. Moreover, the interaction between sense of danger × ethnicity contributed significantly to levels of violence. This study extends the existing knowledge about the contribution of ethnicity as one of many variables that play a role in the lives of women who are victims of domestic violence and highlights the need to develop, in particular, unique individual, community, and social interventions for Arab women in Israeli society.

Predicting changes in PTSD and depression among female intimate partner violence survivors during shelter residency: A longitudinal study.

OBJECTIVE: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression are comorbid consequences of intimate partner violence (IPV), and models explain this comorbidity via an intrinsic relationship between them. The current study posits that changes in both disorders may provide a clearer picture regarding the interrelations between them. We examined mutual contributions of changes in PTSD and depression to each other. The comorbidity was examined through known risk and protective factors related to both disorders among IPV survivors: perception of danger, helplessness, and peer support. METHOD: Sample included 146 female IPV survivors residing in 12 shelters in Israel between September 2009 and April 2014. Self-report questionnaires were completed upon entrance to the shelter and before departure. Analysis included 2 regressions, in which the change-score dependent variable of the first appeared as a regressor in the second and vice versa. RESULTS: The regression designed to explore the contribution of changes in depression to PTSD-change explained 48% of the variance, while the regression designed to explore the contribution of changes in PTSD explained 67% of the variance. Changes in both PTSD (ß = .14, p = .014) and depression (ß = .014, p = .05) contributed similarly to changes in each other, suggesting covariance within IPV-related variables. In addition, the contribution of Arab ethnicity to changes in PTSD was significant. CONCLUSIONS: The current study's contribution is in identifying covariance between PTSD and depression along time within the context of variables related to IPV. Clinical implications are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Predicting Depression Among Jewish and Arab Israeli Women Who Are Victims of Intimate Partner Violence.

This study examined whether there were differences in levels of depression between Arab and Jewish Israeli female victims of intimate partner violence (IPV) and how various personal and environmental variables contributed to depression. A total of 303 women were selected. T tests were conducted, and no significant differences were revealed. Hierarchical regressions were also conducted. Background variables (violence in childhood and employment status) and psychiatric treatment contributed significantly to the variance in depression, and a negative contribution was made by personal and environmental variables (sense of mastery and social support). The interaction between ethnic origin and psychiatric treatment was also found to be significant. The discussion highlights the theoretical contribution and implications for practice in the field.

The Interrelations of Physical and Mental Health: Self-Rated Health, Depression, and PTSD Among Female IPV Survivors.

Researchers have found that intimate partner violence (IPV) is associated with low self-rated health (SRH), which is correlated with increased medication usage, and has tremendous social consequences. IPV and low SRH are associated with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression, and the current study examined the interrelations between these variables among 505 Israeli women in shelters. To assess mediation, three regressions were designed. Traumatic events, Russian ethnicity, and chronic illness all contributed to low SRH. The direct effect of depression on SRH was insignificant when PTSD entered the regression. Our findings suggest that PTSD is a more fundamental factor than depression when predicting SRH among IPV survivors.

Vicarious growth among social work students: What makes the difference?

This study examined the contribution of background variables, personal factors (professional commitment) and environmental factors (peer support and supervision) to social work students' vicarious growth as an implication of their field practicums with trauma victims. Special emphasis was placed on examining the role of secondary traumatisation in the growth process. The sample consisted of 259 social work students at three social work schools in Israel. All students conducted their field practicums in social services and worked with trauma victims. The findings indicated that the mean level of growth was moderate and significant contribution was made by the student's year of study. Specifically, students in their third year of social work school showed more growth than did students in their first year. In addition, a positive contribution was made by the students' supervision satisfaction, professional commitment and secondary traumatisation. The findings thus highlight the possibility of students' growth during their field practicums. In addition, the study emphasises the significant role played by supervisors in these practicums, in terms of both helping students grow as well as dealing with the distress they may feel during this part of their social work training.

Patterns of Service Utilization Among Women Who Are Victims of Domestic Violence: The Contribution of Cultural Background, Characteristics of Violence, and Psychological Distress.

The study examined patterns of utilization of various services among female victims of domestic violence in Israel. The study looked at how cultural background, characteristics of violence, attempts at separation from partner, and women's emotional distress contributed to patterns of service utilization. The sample of participants included 499 women who arrived at 12 shelters in Israel. Of those participants, 142 were Jewish, 156 were Arab, 125 had been born in the former Soviet Union (FSU), and 76 had been born in Ethiopia. Latent class analysis procedure was applied to identified patterns of service utilization. The procedure identified three patterns of service utilization: substantial use, frequent use of welfare and criminal justice services, and minimal use. Among Arab women, the likelihood of making substantial use of services was greater than the likelihood of making minimal use. Moreover, among the entire sample, the higher the levels of sexual abuse, violence, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), the greater the likelihood of substantial versus minimal use of services. In addition, being employed, enduring higher levels of violence, and making attempts to separate increased the likelihood of utilization of welfare and criminal justice services versus minimal use. The study highlights the factors that motivate women to make use of services and the distinct strategies they use in the help-seeking process. At the practice level, the study emphasizes the need to take into account both the woman's cultural context and the stage of help seeking she is at. In this way, professionals can provide differential treatment accordingly.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Upon Admission to Shelters Among Female Victims of Domestic Violence: An Ecological Model of Trauma.

The study used the ecological model of trauma and recovery (Harvey, 1996) to examine the rates of probable posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among female victims of domestic violence. Five hundred and five participants completed questionnaires upon entering shelters in Israel. Analysis showed that 61% of the participants reported probable PTSD. Childhood exposure to violence, violence severity, and feeling helpless were all associated with high PTSD levels. By contrast, Ethiopian ethnicity, social support, and a stronger sense of control were associated with lower PTSD levels. However, the interaction between social support and violence duration showed that social support did not moderate PTSD when exposure to violence endured. The study emphasizes that resources deteriorate, and that policy-augmenting prevention programs would increase treatment potential to strengthen survivors' coping capacities.

Personal and Environmental Predictors of Depression Among Victims of Intimate Partner Violence: Comparison of Immigrant and Israeli-Born Women.

In the present study, ecological theory was used as a basis for predicting depression among women who survive intimate partner violence (IPV). The predictors examined in the study derived from three ecological systems: the microsystem (background variables and frequency of the violence), the ontogenic system (personal resources), and the mesosystem (support resources). One hundred twenty-five women who immigrated from the Former Soviet Union and 149 Israeli-born Jewish women filled in questionnaires when they entered shelters for victims of IPV. The research findings indicate that background variables, including immigration, did not contribute significantly to the women's depression. Frequency of violence contributed slightly to depression, whereas the women's sense of mastery and social support contributed most significantly. The results highlight the need to strengthen these resources when women are in shelters, and to conduct further research to determine whether these results also hold true for women who receive services for prevention of violence in the community.

Competence of Trauma Social Workers: The Relationship Between Field of Practice and Secondary Traumatization, Personal and Environmental Variables.

In recent years, there has been growing interest in examining role competence and the factors that can contribute to a sense of role competence among social workers. In the present study, we used the occupational competence model (OCM) as a basis for examining the contribution of the personal dimension (mastery, self-esteem, and secondary traumatization),environmental dimension (support systems),-and occupational dimension (exposure to the field of family violence) to the social worker's subjective sense of role competence. Participants in the study were 214 social workers employed at centers for prevention of family violence, at shelters for victims of violence against women, and at social service bureaus. The findings indicate that in the occupational dimension, the contribution of exposure to work in the field of family violence contributed significantly to two components of the participants' subjective sense of role competence: general sense of role competence and task knowledge/problem solving. In the personal dimension, the contribution of secondary traumatization and mastery to a sense of role competence was significant. In the environmental dimension (i.e., support systems), the specific contribution of managerial support to the participants' sense of role competence was significant. In light of these findings, practical recommendations for developing a sense of role competence among social workers are provided.

Child protection workers dealing with child abuse: The contribution of personal, social and organizational resources to secondary traumatization.

The present study compared secondary traumatization among child protection social workers versus social workers employed at social service departments. In addition, based on Conservation of Resources (COR) theory, the study examined the contribution of working in the field of child protection as well as the contribution of background variables, personal resources (mastery), and resources in the workers' social and organizational environment (social support, effectiveness of supervision, and role stress) to secondary traumatization. The findings indicate that levels of mastery and years of work experience contributed negatively to secondary traumatization, whereas exposure to child maltreatment, trauma history, and role stress contributed positively to secondary traumatization. However, no significant contribution was found for social support and effectiveness of supervision. The study identifies factors that can prevent distress among professionals such as child protection workers, who are exposed to the trauma of child abuse victims. Recommendations are provided accordingly.

Therapists Working With Trauma Victims: The Contribution of Personal, Environmental, and Professional-Organizational Resources to Secondary Traumatization.

This study examined the contribution of personal variables and resources (age, mastery, tolerance for ambiguity, and stressors), environmental resources (support from family and friends, colleague support), and professional-organizational resources (size of caseload with trauma victims, organizational commitment) to secondary traumatization. The sample consisted of 217 social workers employed at social service departments in Israel who worked with families in situations of distress and crisis and with adolescent girls at risk. The findings indicated that tolerance for ambiguity contributed most significantly to explaining the variance in secondary traumatization, followed by stressors. The size of the social workers' caseload with trauma victims also contributed significantly to explaining the variance in secondary traumatization. In addition, an interaction was found between age and continuance commitment. Among younger social workers, a negative association was found between continuance commitment to the organization and secondary traumatization, whereas among older social workers the association was positive. However, the contribution of the other research variables (mastery, support from family and friends, and colleague support) to explaining the variance in secondary traumatization was not statistically significant. The findings highlight the important role of personal resources and professional-organizational resources in enabling therapists to cope with the negative implications of working with trauma victims.