Do we all do the same things? Applicability of daily activities at the intersection of demographics.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the extent to which demographic factors-and their intersections-influence the applicability of items assessing activities of daily living (ADLs) in a sample of older adults. METHOD: Participants' (n = 44,713) Functional Activities Questionnaire (FAQ) scores from a multicenter database were evaluated to see how participant and collateral demographics, contextual, and clinical characteristics impacted ADL nonapplicability (NA). Collateral, contextual, and clinical characteristics were matched in those with and without NA. The effect of participant demographics and their interactions on NA responses were modeled with logistic regression. RESULTS: At least one FAQ item (most commonly bill payment, taxes, playing games, and meal preparation) was rated as NA in up to one third of participants across ethnoracial groups. Dementia staging had the largest impact on NA, followed by participant demographics. In a matched sample, logistic models revealed that participant demographics, in particular sex, best predicted NA. However, meaningful interactions with ethnoracial group were noted for bill payment, taxes, meal preparation, and game engagement, suggesting that demographic intersections (e.g., younger vs. older Latinxs) meaningfully predict whether a given ADL was applicable to an individual participant. CONCLUSIONS: Neuropsychology is predicated on accurate assessments of both cognition and daily functioning and, in an increasingly diverse aging population, there should be careful consideration of demographic factors, their interactions, and historical contexts that drive day-to-day demands. This study establishes limitations of existing measures and paths forward for creating fair measures of functioning in older adults. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Toward a cross-cultural understanding of intraindividual variability metrics.

OBJECTIVE: Compare the construct validity and predictive utility of cognitive intraindividual variability (IIV) in a sample of community-dwelling Hispanic and non-Hispanic white (NHW) older adults. METHODS: The present study included annual data from 651 older adult control participants (Hispanic = 293; NHW = 358) enrolled in the Texas Alzheimer's Research and Care Consortium for at least 5 years. Mean composite z-scores were calculated for attention, language, memory, and executive domains. IIV was calculated as was the standard deviation both within (IIV-Within) and between (IIV-Between) these domains. RESULTS: At baseline, NHW individuals obtained significantly higher mean scores in each domain than their Hispanic counterparts. They also showed significantly greater variability within and between domains, except for IIV-Within the language domain which was significantly larger in the Hispanic group. IIV-Between domains was driven primarily by IIV-Within the executive function domain in the NHW cohort and by IIV-Within the language domain in the Hispanic cohort. In both groups, the addition of IIV-Within and IIV-Between cognitive domains at baseline significantly improved prediction of global cognitive status after 5 years above and beyond demographic characteristics, genetic and cardiovascular risk. However, IIV-Between domains was the strongest predictor in the NHW group, while IIV-Within the attention domain was the strongest predictor in the Hispanic group. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that, while IIV-Between domains is a promising adjunctive method for predicting future cognitive decline, its construct validity and predictive utility varies based on ethnic group.

The Technology in Caring Questionnaire: Development and Psychometric Properties.

OBJECTIVE: We developed the Technology in Caring Questionnaire (TCQ) to assess the use of technology-based strategies by dementia caregivers. METHODS: One hundred caregivers completed a survey that included TCQ items along with measures of technology proficiency and patient and caregiver-centered outcomes. RESULTS: The final 34-item TCQ scale had adequate to excellent internal consistency (raw Cronbach alpha = 0.75; standardized Cronbach alpha = 0.95; Guttman lambda-6 = 0.97). TCQ scores demonstrated modest convergent associations with scores from measures of smartphone ( r = 0.265, P < 0.01) and computer proficiency ( r = 0.230, P < 0.05) but a strong association with overall technology experience scores ( r = 0.578, P < 0.001). Elevated TCQ scores were associated with reduced informant-reported cognitive symptoms ( B = -0.003, P < 0.05), increased ability of caregivers to find support and information ( B = 0.03, P < 0.001), and increased direct care strain ( B = 0.03, P < 0.05), after controlling for dementia severity and demographics. CONCLUSION: The TCQ has good psychometric properties for the assessment of technology-based care strategies among dementia caregivers. Findings imply that the use of technologies may aid in symptom management and finding support and information but may also increase caregiver strain.

Internet-Enabled Behaviors in Older Adults During the Pandemic: Patterns of Use, Psychosocial Impacts, and Plans for Continued Utilization.

In response to social distancing measures during the COVID-19 pandemic, there was a need to increase the frequency of internet enabled behaviors (IEBs). To date, little is known about how the pandemic impacted IEBs in older adults, a population that has historically been linked to lower digital literacy and utilization. We administered an online survey between April and July 2021 to 298 adults who were over age 50 (mean age = 73 years; 93.5% non-Hispanic white; 94% smart phone owners; 83.5% retired). Older adults self-reported IEBs for social, shopping, medical, and leisure activities during the pandemic, plans for continued use of these behaviors, and completed measures of psychosocial functioning. 66.8% of respondents reported an overall increase in IEBs during the pandemic, most notably for online meeting attendance. More frequent online meeting use was associated with less depression (r = -0.12, p = .04) and less loneliness (r = -0.14, p = .02). With regard to plans for continued use, 82.5% of the sample reported at least one IEB (M = 2.18, SD = 1.65) that they increased during the pandemic and planned to maintain over time (e.g., online shopping for household goods). Plans for continued use were more likely in participants who used IEBs more overall during the pandemic (r = 0.56, p < .001), and who frequently sought technical support on search engines (r = 0.22, p < .001), or online video sites (r = 0.16, p = .006). In summary, IEBs during the pandemic were associated with favorable psychosocial functioning and expectations for continued use in this sample of predominantly white older adults who had some baseline technological familiarity.

Digital Methods for Performing Daily Tasks Among Older Adults: An Initial Report of Frequency of Use and Perceived Utility.

OBJECTIVE: Digital technologies permit new ways of performing instrumental activities of daily living (iADLs) for older adults, but these approaches are not usually considered in existing iADL measures. The current study investigated how a sample of older adults report using digital versus analog approaches for iADLs. METHOD: 248 older adults completed the Digital and Analog Daily Activities Survey, a newly developed measure of how an individual performs financial, navigation, medication, and other iADLs. RESULTS: The majority of participants reported regularly using digital methods for some iADLs, such as paying bills (67.7%) and using GPS (67.7%). Low digital adopters were older than high adopters (F(2, 245) = 12.24, p < .001), but otherwise the groups did not differ in terms of gender, years of education, or history of neurological disorders. Participants who used digital methods relatively more than analog methods reported greater levels of satisfaction with their approach and fewer daily errors. CONCLUSIONS: Many older adults have adopted digital technologies for supporting daily tasks, which suggests limitations to the validity of current iADL assessments. By capitalizing on existing habits and enriching environments with new technologies, there are opportunities to promote technological reserve in older adults in a manner that sustains daily functioning.

Recent Advances in Neuropsychological Test Interpretation for Clinical Practice.

Much attention in the field of clinical neuropsychology has focused on adapting to the modern healthcare environment by advancing telehealth and promoting technological innovation in assessment. Perhaps as important (but less discussed) are advances in the development and interpretation of normative neuropsychological test data. These techniques can yield improvement in diagnostic decision-making and treatment planning with little additional cost. Brooks and colleagues (Can Psychol 50: 196-209, 2009) eloquently summarized best practices in normative data creation and interpretation, providing a practical overview of norm development, measurement error, the base rates of low scores, and methods for assessing change. Since the publication of this seminal work, there have been several important advances in research on development and interpretation of normative neuropsychological test data, which may be less familiar to the practicing clinician. Specifically, we provide a review of the literature on regression-based normed scores, item response theory, multivariate base rates, summary/factor scores, cognitive intraindividual variability, and measuring change over time. For each topic, we include (1) an overview of the method, (2) a rapid review of the recent literature, (3) a relevant case example, and (4) a discussion of limitations and controversies. Our goal was to provide a primer for use of normative neuropsychological test data in neuropsychological practice.

The impact of technology-based compensatory behaviors on subjective cognitive decline in older adults with a family history of dementia.

The current study examined whether greater use of technology to help with daily tasks is associated with less subjective cognitive decline (SCD), especially in individuals with a family history of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Individuals over the age of 50 (n = 102; age range 50-85) completed surveys about their digital and analog approaches to daily tasks, physical activity, and SCD. Participants with and without family histories of AD were matched on age, education, sex, and family history of AD using the R package MatchIt. There was no main effect of technology-based behavioral strategies on SCD (p = 0.259). However, a family history of AD moderated the association between technology use and SCD even when controlling for another protective lifestyle factor, physical activity. In individuals with a family history of AD, more reliance on technology-based behavioral strategies was associated with less SCD (p = 0.018), but this relationship was not significant in individuals without family history of AD (p = 0.511). Our findings suggest that technology-based behavioral strategies are associated with less SCD in individuals with a family history of AD, independent of another protective lifestyle factor. Future recommendations provided by healthcare providers to address SCD in cognitively unimpaired older adults might include focusing on technological assistance.

Computer use: a protective factor for cognition in aging and HIV disease?

BACKGROUND: Modifiable lifestyle factors such as engagement with technology may be beneficial to cognition in older adults, but we know little about these relationships in older persons with chronic medical conditions. AIMS: The current study examined the association between computer use frequency and cognition in younger and older adults with and without HIV disease. METHODS: Participants included 110 older persons with HIV (pwHIV; age ≥ 50 years), 84 younger pwHIV (age ≤ 40 years), 76 older HIV-, and 66 younger HIV- adults who completed a comprehensive medical, psychiatric, and cognitive research assessment. Demographically adjusted scores were derived from a well-validated clinical battery of performance-based neuropsychological tests. Participants also completed self-reported measures of cognitive symptoms in daily life and the Brief Computer Use and Anxiety Questionnaire (BCUAQ). RESULTS: Older age was associated with less frequent computer use among persons with and without HIV disease. More frequent computer use was strongly and independently related to better cognitive performance, particularly in higher order domains (e.g., episodic memory and executive functions) and among the older seronegative adults. A small, univariable correlation between more frequent computer use and fewer cognitive symptoms in daily life was observed in the full sample, but that relationship was better explained by computer-related anxiety and HIV/age study group. DISCUSSION: These findings add to the existing literature that suggests regular engagement with digital technologies may have a beneficial impact on cognitive functioning, consistent with the technological reserve hypothesis.

Technology use and subjective cognitive concerns in older adults.

OBJECTIVES: How technology impacts the day to day cognitive functioning of older adults is a matter of some debate. On the one hand, the use of technologies such as smartphones and social media, may lead to more subjective cognitive concerns (SCC) by promoting distractibility and reliance on devices to perform memory tasks. However, continued digital engagement in older adults may also be related to better cognitive functioning. Given these competing viewpoints, our study evaluated if frequency of digital device use was associated with greater or less subjective cognitive concerns. METHOD: Participants were 219 adults over the age of 65 (mean age =75 years) who had internet access. Measures assessing frequency of digital device use along with SCC were administered. Hierarchical multiple regression was used to gage association between frequency of device use and SCC, controlling for relevant demographic and lifestyle factors. RESULTS: Increased frequency of digital device use was associated with less SCC, over and above the influence of demographic factors, across cognitive (but especially in executive) domains. This effect was observed for general device usage, with no statistically significant associations were observed between texting/video call, social media use and SCC. DISCUSSION: Results were broadly consistent with the technological reserve hypothesis in that digital engagement was associated with better experienced cognitive functioning in older adults. While device use may contribute to distractibility in certain cases, the current results add to a burgeoning literature that digital engagement may be a protective factor for cognitive changes with age.

Online vs Face-to-Face Administration of Impulse Control Disorder Questionnaires in Parkinson Disease: Does Method Matter?

Background and Objective: Social desirability bias, the tendency to underreport undesirable behaviors, may be one reason patients with Parkinson disease (PD) underreport symptoms of impulse control disorders (ICDs). Methods: We compared rates of ICD endorsement on questionnaires administered face-to-face and online in 60 patients with mild-to-moderate idiopathic PD. Participants also completed a self-report measure of social desirability. Results: We found a significantly higher prevalence of any ICD based on online (56.7%) vs in-person (33.3%) administration. Significantly higher endorsement of items related to hypersexuality in men and compulsive eating and buying in women were found with online administration. Social desirability bias was positively correlated with ICD symptom endorsement across all items and subscales. Discussion: The results highlight the importance of social context/setting and the need for sensitivity and discretion when screening for ICD symptoms. Although a higher level of symptom endorsement does not necessarily imply a greater level of accuracy, more work is needed to determine which method of administration is most accurate for clinical and research practice.

From pleasure to punding: Distinct patterns of anhedonia and impulsivity linked to motivational disturbances in Parkinson disease.

INTRODUCTION: Apathy and impulse control disorders (ICD) are common comorbid motivational syndromes in Parkinson disease (PD). This study aimed to determine if patients with these motivational disturbances exhibit different patterns of anhedonia and trait impulsivity. METHODS: Sixty-four non-demented patients with PD completed questionnaires assessing apathy and ICD symptoms, which were used to classify participants into one of the following groups: apathy only, ICD only, both, and neither. Participants also completed multidimensional measures of anhedonia and trait impulsivity, which were compared across groups defined by motivational status. RESULTS: Individuals with both apathy and ICD had significantly greater symptoms of positive and negative urgency than all other groups and had significantly greater consummatory anhedonia and lack of premeditation and perseverance than those with ICD only and neither. Patients with apathy only also reported significantly greater anticipatory anhedonia than those with ICD only and the neither group. There were no significant between-group differences in sensation seeking. CONCLUSION: Distinct patterns of impulsivity and anhedonia characterize unique behavioral phenotypes of motivational disturbances in PD and may reflect important differences in the underlying neurobiological mechanisms. Clinicians should be aware that motivational disturbances may be more severe in cases where apathy co-occurs with one or more ICD.HIGHLIGHTSHighlights are mandatory for all submissions except letters. They consist of a short collection of bullet points that convey the core findings of the article and should be submitted in a separate file in the online submission system. Please use "Highlights" in the file name and include 3-5 bullet points (maximum 85 characters, including spaces, per bullet point). See https://www.elsevier.com/highlights for examples.

Correspondence of the Boston Naming Test and Multilingual Naming Test in identifying naming impairments in a geriatric cognitive disorders clinic.

Confrontation naming measures are commonly used for both diagnostic and clinical research purposes in populations of known or suspected neurodegenerative disorders. The Boston Naming Test (BNT) is the most widely used measure of confrontation naming but has been criticized for outdated and culturally biased content. A new naming measure, the Multilingual Naming Test (MiNT), has been developed that may address these limitations, but research regarding its validity and diagnostic performance relative to existing instruments is limited. The current study examined how the BNT and MiNT performed in a sample of older adults evaluated in an interprofessional memory disorders clinic. Eighty-six individuals (50.0% women) met the inclusion criteria and were included in the study. The average age of participants was 74.2 years (SD = 7.7), and the average education was 16.7 years (SD = 2.5). Most participants were non-Hispanic White (94.2%), and the remaining participants were Hispanic or Black. All participants completed a comprehensive evaluation in English and were administered both the BNT and the MiNT. The strength of agreement as indexed by CCC (.67) was modest for the sample as a whole. Eighty-seven-point five percent classification agreement for impaired vs. normal naming performance was obtained. Eleven cases showed disagreement between BNT and MiNT classification of impairment, with seven of these being borderline score cases. Overall, the results suggest that the MiNT performs similarly at the identification of naming impairments as the BNT, though performance may diverge across different diagnostic groups and may be influenced by age.

The ecological validity of the Uniform Data Set 3.0 neuropsychological battery in individuals with mild cognitive impairment and dementia.

Objective: Ecological validity refers to the ability of neuropsychological measures to predict real world performance. Questions remain as to the ecological validity of commonly used measures, particularly regarding their relationships to global versus specific activities of daily living among those with neurodegenerative disease. We explored these issues through the lens of the Uniform Data Set 3.0 Neuropsychological battery (UDS3NB) in individuals with mild cognitive impairment and dementia. Method: UDS3NB and informant rated Functional Activities Questionnaire scales were evaluated from 2,253 individuals with mild cognitive impairment and dementia. Ordinal regression equations were used to explore the relationships of demographic and cognitive variables with overall and specific instrumental activities of daily living. Results: Delayed recall for visual and verbal material, and performance on trail making tests were consistent predictors of global and specific functions. Specific skills (i.e. naming or figure copy) showed differential relationships with specific activities, while phonemic fluency was not related to any particular activity. Conclusions: Measures in the UDS3NB predicted activities of daily living in individuals with MCI and dementia, providing initial support for the ecological validity of these tests. Specifically, measures that tap core deficits of Alzheimer's disease, such as delayed recall and sequencing/shifting, are consistent predictors of performance in daily tasks.

Using smartphone technology to improve prospective memory functioning: A randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: A decline in the ability to perform daily intentions-known as prospective memory-is a key driver of everyday functional impairment in dementia. In the absence of effective pharmacological treatments, there is a need for developing, testing, and optimizing behavioral interventions that can bolster daily prospective memory functioning. We investigated the feasibility and efficacy of smartphone-based strategies for prospective memory in persons with cognitive impairment. METHODS: Fifty-two older adults (74.79 ± 7.20 years) meeting diagnostic criteria for mild cognitive impairment or mild dementia were enrolled in a 4-week randomized controlled trial. Participants were trained to use a digital voice recorder app or a reminder app to off-load prospective memory intentions. Prospective memory was assessed using experimenter-assigned tasks (e.g., call the laboratory on assigned days), standardized questionnaires, and structured interviews. Secondary dependent measures included days of phone and app usage, acceptability ratings, quality of life, and independent activities of daily living. RESULTS: Participant ratings indicated that the intervention was acceptable and feasible. Furthermore, after the four-week intervention, participants reported improvements in daily prospective memory functioning on standardized questionnaires (p < 0.001, ηp2  = 0.285) and the structured interview (p < 0.001, d = 1.75). Participants performed relatively well on experimenter-assigned prospective memory tasks (51.7% ± 27.8%), with performance levels favoring the reminder app in Week 1, but reversing to favor the digital recorder app in Week 4 (p = 0.010, ηp2  = 0.079). Correlational analyses indicated that greater usage of the digital recorder or reminder app was associated with better prospective memory performance and greater improvements in instrumental activities of daily living (completed by care partners), even when controlling for condition, age, baseline cognitive functioning, and baseline smartphone experience. CONCLUSIONS: Older adults with cognitive disorders can learn smartphone-based memory strategies and doing so benefits prospective memory functioning and independence.

Apathy and actions- another consideration when theorizing about embodied nature of language in Parkinson's disease.

Objectives Individuals with Parkinson's disease (PD) have difficulty processing actions or verbs relative to nouns. Verb difficulties are thought to represent the coupling of language and motor networks. However, those with PD also frequently experience apathy. The overlap between apathy and action language difficulties is to date unexplored. Furthermore, whether verb/action fluency difficulty represents verb degradation (semantic/conceptual) or a selective lexical retrieval difficulty has not been determined. Methods In the current study, 20 individuals with PD without dementia completed cued action (verb) and animal (noun) fluency tasks in addition to assessments of apathy, cognition, and motor functioning. Results Individuals who exhibited impairments on action and animal fluency improved around 50% with the provision of cueing. The degree to which action fluency improved with cueing was correlated with behavioral/initiation apathy (rs=.56) as well as motor dysfunction (rs=-.57), while no similar relationship was found between those factors and nouns. Conclusions These findings suggest that impaired retrieval of actions and nouns are present in PD, but may have different underlying neuropsychological underpinnings. This provides preliminary support for grounded cognition models, which suggest the brain organizes information around motor, perceptual, and other networks. MESH terms Parkinson Disease, Neurocognitive Disorders, Apathy, Language Disorders, Neuropsychological Tests, Cognition.

Emerging topics in dementia care and services.

BACKGROUND: The National Institute on Aging (NIA), in conjunction with the Department of Health and Human Services as part of the National Alzheimer's Project Act (NAPA), convened a 2020 Dementia Care, Caregiving, and Services Research Summit Virtual Meeting Series. This review article summarizes three areas of emerging science that are likely to grow in importance given advances in measurement, technologies, and diagnostic tests that were presented at the Summit. RESULTS: Dr. Cassel discussed novel ethical considerations that have resulted from scientific advances that have enabled early diagnosis of pre-clinical dementia. Dr. Monin then summarized issues regarding emotional experiences in persons with dementia and their caregivers and care partners, including the protective impact of positive emotion and heterogeneity of differences in emotion by dementia type and individual characteristics that affect emotional processes with disease progression. Finally, Dr. Jared Benge provided an overview of the role of technologies in buffering the impact of cognitive change on real-world functioning and their utility in safety and monitoring of function and treatment adherence, facilitating communication and transportation, and increasing access to specialists in underserved or remote areas. CONCLUSIONS: National policy initiatives, supported by strong advocacy and increased federal investments, have accelerated the pace of scientific inquiry and innovation related to dementia care and services but have raised some new concerns regarding ethics, disparities, and attending to individual needs, capabilities, and preferences.

Neuropsychological Equivalence of the Clinical Diagnosis of Mild Cognitive Impairment in the National Alzheimer's Coordinating Center Uniform Data Set and Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative.

INTRODUCTION: Our understanding of Alzheimer's disease may be improved by harmonizing data from large cohort studies of older adults. Differences in the way clinical conditions, like mild cognitive impairment (MCI), are diagnosed may lead to variability among participants that share the same diagnostic label. This variability presents a challenge for cohort harmonization and may lead to inconsistency in research findings. Little research to date has explored the equivalence of the diagnostic label of MCI across 2 of the largest and most influential cohort studies in the USA: the National Alzheimer's Coordinating Center (NACC) and the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI). METHODS: Participants with MCI due to presumed Alzheimer's disease from the NACC Uniform Data Set (n = 789) and ADNI (n = 131) were compared on demographic, psychological, and functional variables, as well as on an abbreviated neuropsychological battery common to the 2 data sets. RESULTS: Though similar in terms of age, education, and functional status, the NACC sample was more diverse (17.4% non-White participants vs. 7.6% in ADNI; χ2 = 7.923, p = 0.005) and tended to perform worse on some cognitive tests. In particular, participants diagnosed with MCI in NACC were more likely to have clinically significant impairments on language measures (26.36-31.18%) than MCI participants in ADNI (16.03-19.85%). DISCUSSION: The current findings suggest important differences in cognitive performances between 2 large MCI cohorts, likely reflective of differences in diagnostic criteria used in these 2 studies, as well as differences in sample compositions. Such diagnostic heterogeneity may make harmonizing data across these cohorts challenging. However, application of shared psychometric criteria across studies may lead to closer equivalence of MCI groups. Such approaches could pave the way for cohort harmonization and enable "big data" analytic approaches to understanding Alzhei-mer's to be developed.

How impaired is too impaired? Exploring futile neuropsychological test patterns as a function of dementia severity and cognitive screening scores.

Some older adults cannot meaningfully participate in the testing portion of a neuropsychological evaluation due to significant cognitive impairments. There are limited empirical data on this topic. Thus, the current study sought to provide an operational definition for a futile testing profile and examine cognitive severity status and cognitive screening scores as predictors of testing futility at both baseline and first follow-up evaluations. We analysed data from 9,263 older adults from the National Alzheimer's Coordinating Center Uniform Data Set. Futile testing profiles occurred rarely at baseline (7.40%). There was a strong relationship between cognitive severity status and the prevalence of futile testing profiles, χ2 (4) = 3559.77, p < .001. Over 90% of individuals with severe dementia were unable to participate meaningfully in testing. Severity range on the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) also demonstrated a strong relationship with testing futility, χ2 (3) = 3962.35, p < .001. The rate of futile testing profiles was similar at follow-up (7.90%). There was a strong association between baseline dementia severity and likelihood of demonstrating a futile testing profile at follow-up, χ2 (4) = 1513.40, p < .001. Over 90% of individuals with severe dementia, who were initially able to participate meaningfully testing, no longer could at follow-up. Similarly, there was a strong relationship between baseline MoCA score band and likelihood of demonstrating a futile testing profile at follow-up, χ2 (3) = 1627.37, p < .001. Results can help to guide decisions about optimizing use of limited neuropsychological assessment resources.

Preserving prospective memory in daily life: A systematic review and meta-analysis of mnemonic strategy, cognitive training, external memory aid, and combination interventions.

OBJECTIVE: To preserve or improve independent functioning in older adults and those with neurocognitive impairments, researchers and clinicians need to address prospective memory deficits. To be effective, prospective memory interventions must restore (or circumvent) the underlying attention and memory mechanisms that are impaired by aging, brain injury, and neurodegeneration. We evaluated two decades of prospective memory interventions for efficacy, time/resource costs, and ecological validity. METHOD: We systematically reviewed 73 prospective memory intervention studies of middle- to older-aged healthy adults and clinical groups (N = 3,749). We also rated the ecological validity of each study's prospective memory assessment/task using a newly developed scale. When possible (72% of studies), we estimated effect sizes using random-effects models and Hedges' g. RESULTS: We identified four categories of prospective memory interventions, including mnemonic strategy, cognitive training, external memory aid, and combination interventions. Mnemonic strategy (g = .450) and cognitive training (g = .538) interventions demonstrated efficacy. Combination interventions showed mixed results (g = .254), underscoring that "more is not always better." External memory aids demonstrated very positive outcomes (g = .805), though often with small-sample, case-series designs. Prospective memory assessments had high ecological validity in external memory aid studies (84%), but not in mnemonic strategy (14%), cognitive training (20%), or combination intervention (50%) studies, p < .001, ηp2 = .33. CONCLUSIONS: Everyday prospective memory can be meaningfully improved, perhaps particularly with external memory aids, but larger trials are required to optimize treatments, increase adherence, and broaden implementation in daily life. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).