Revision of the western Nearctic spider genus Cybaeina including the description of Neocybaeina gen. nov. and Rothaeina gen. nov. (Araneae: Cybaeidae: Cybaeinae).

This paper is the last in a series revising the Nearctic Cybaeinae spider fauna (Araneae: RTA clade: Cybaeidae) exclusive of Cybaeozyga Chamberlin & Ivie. The forested habitats of the west coast of North America are home to a diverse array of endemic Cybaeinae spider taxa. Many of these have very restricted distributions, especially within an area of the western United States of America from the Olympic Peninsula of northwestern Washington to the northern half of the California Floristic Province of California, a well-known biodiversity hotspot. Here we revise the genus Cybaeina Chamberlin & Ivie recognizing three species: the type species Cybaeus minutus Banks (= Cybaeina minuta (Banks)), C. confusa Chamberlin & Ivie, and a single new species C. dixoni Bennett spec. nov. We describe Neocybaeina Bennett gen. nov. with type species Cybaeina xantha Chamberlin & Ivie (= Neocybaeina xantha (Chamberlin & Ivie) comb. nov.) and a single new species N. burnetti spec. nov. Finally we describe Rothaeina Bennett gen. nov. with type species Cybaeina sequoia Roth (= Rothaeina sequoia (Roth) comb. nov.) and four new species R. beaudini Bennett spec. nov., R. jamesi Bennett spec. nov., R. mackinleyi Bennett spec. nov., and R. petersoni Bennett spec. nov. In addition to descriptions of the genera and both sexes of their included species (except for N. burnetti spec. nov. and R. beaudini Bennett spec. nov. which are known from females only), we provide diagnoses, illustrations, distribution maps, and, for the three species of Cybaeina and the five of Rothaeina gen. nov., identification keys. In closing, we discuss conservation implications for this cryptic and infrequently collected group of western Nearctic Cybaeinae, several of which are short-range endemic species.

Pseudocybaeota (Araneae: Cybaeidae): a new spider genus endemic to coastal Pacific Northwestern United States of America.

The forested habitats of the west coast of North America are home to a diverse array of endemic Cybaeinae spider taxa (Araneae: RTA clade: Cybaeidae). Most of those taxa have very restricted distributions within an area of the western United States of America from the Olympic Peninsula of northwestern Washington to the northern half of the Californian Floristic Province of California, a well-known biodiversity hotspot. Here we describe Pseudocybaeota Bennett gen. nov. with type species Cybaeus perditus Chamberlin Ivie (= Pseudocybaeota perdita (Chamberlin Ivie) comb. nov.) and including two new species, P. butterfieldi Bennett spec. nov. and P. tuberculata Bennett spec. nov. These rarely collected species are restricted to forested habitats in small areas of the coastal watersheds of the Olympic Peninsula (P. perdita comb. nov.), southern Curry and adjacent northern Del Norte Counties in Oregon and California, respectively (P. tuberculata spec. nov.), and Humboldt County in northwestern California (P. butterfieldi spec. nov.). In addition to descriptions of the genus and both sexes of its included species we provide diagnoses, illustrations, an identification key, and distribution maps for the species of this distinctive new genus.

The Californian clade of Cybaeus (Araneae: Cybaeidae) in the Nearctic: the septatus species group and three unplaced species.

North American species of the genus Cybaeus L. Koch (Araneae: RTA clade: Cybaeidae) are woodland spiders classified in Holarctic and Californian clades. Here, in the fifth and final paper in a series reviewing the six Californian clade species groups, we present eight species. Five species comprise the septatus group: Cybaeus chauliodous Bennett, C. lockeae Bennett spec. nov., C. septatus Chamberlin Ivie, C. somesbar Bennett, and C. viator Bennett spec. nov. The male of C. lockeae spec. nov. is unknown; the male of C. somesbar is newly described. As well, we recognize and review three Californian clade species (C. cribelloides Chamberlin Ivie, C. gidneyi Bennett, and C. irreverens Bennett spec. nov.) that we have been unable to place confidently in any of the six species groups. Descriptions, illustrations, distribution maps, and (for the members of the septatus group) an identification key are provided. Finally, we summarize the taxonomic status of all described North American species of Cybaeus and highlight some conservation concerns.

Cybaeus (Araneae: Cybaeidae) in the Nearctic: the devius and tardatus species groups of the Californian clade.

Species of North American Cybaeus L. Koch (Araneae: RTA clade: Cybaeidae) are moist-forest spiders classified in Holarctic and Californian clades. Here, in the fourth paper in a planned series reviewing the six Californian clade species groups, we review the species of the devius and tardatus groups. We recognize five species in the devius group (Cybaeus bilectus Bennett spec. nov., C. bryoncavus Bennett spec. nov., C. devius Chamberlin Ivie, C. echo Bennett spec. nov., and C. wilsonia Bennett spec. nov.) and four in the tardatus group (C. orarius Bennett spec. nov., C. piazzai Bennett spec. nov., C. tardatus Chamberlin, and C. topanga Bennett spec. nov.). All of these species are rarely encountered and have restricted distributions either in the central and southern Sierra Nevada Mountains of eastern California, U.S.A (devius group) or the southern coast of western California (tardatus group). Some of these species are likely endangered or already extinct; most have not been seen in many decades and none have been collected more recently than 1995. Descriptions, illustrations, distribution maps, and identification keys are provided as well as a discussion of conservation issues of relevance to the group.

Cybaeus (Araneae: Cybaeidae): the consocius species group of the Californian clade.

Species of North American Cybaeus L. Koch (Araneae: RTA clade: Cybaeidae) are common moist-forest spiders classified in Holarctic and Californian clades. Here, in the third paper in a planned series reviewing the six Californian clade species groups, we review the species of the consocius group. We recognize nine species: Cybaeus consocius Chamberlin Ivie, C. hesper Chamberlin Ivie, C. hummeli Bennett spec. nov., C. opulentus spec. nov., C. pan Bennett spec. nov., C. penedentatus Bennett, C. simplex Roth, C. ubicki Bennett spec. nov., and C. vulpinus Bennett. Eight of these species have restricted distributions in the central Sierra Nevada Mountains of eastern California, U.S.A (C. opulentus, C. pan spec. nov., and C. vulpinus) or the central coast of western California (C. consocius, C. hesper, C. hummeli spec. nov., C. penedentatus, and C. ubicki spec. nov.); a single species (C. simplex), is relatively widely distributed in western Oregon, U.S.A. Descriptions, illustrations, distribution maps, and an identification key are provided as well as a discussion of conservation issues of relevance to the group.

Cybaeus (Araneae: Cybaeidae): the aspenicolens species group of the Californian clade.

Species of North American Cybaeus L. Koch (Araneae: RTA clade: Cybaeidae) are common moist-forest spiders classified in Holarctic and Californian clades. Here, in the second paper in a planned series reviewing the six Californian clade species groups, we review the species of the aspenicolens group. We recognize five species in two subgroups: the aspenicolens subgroup (Cybaeus aspenicolens Chamberlin Ivie, C. blasbes Chamberlin Ivie, and C. coylei Bennett spec. nov.) and the fraxineus subgroup (C. fraxineus Bennett spec. nov. and C. thermydrinos Bennett). The species of the aspenicolens group have very restricted distributions on the western slopes of the central and southern Sierra Nevada mountain range from Tuolumne County south to northern Kern County in east central California, U.S.A. Descriptions, illustrations, distribution maps, and an identification key are provided for the five species as well as a discussion of conservation issues of relevance to the group.

A Review of Black Widow (Araneae: Theridiidae) Envenomation, Epidemiology, and Antivenom Utilization in Canada.

Two species of black widow spider (BWS-Latrodectus hesperus Chamberlin & Ivie and Latrodectus variolus Walckenaer) naturally occur in Canada and are capable of causing deleterious envenomation to humans. No Canadian literature exists on the frequency of envenomations by these species or the use of antivenom in the treatment of those patients. A review of primary Canadian arachnology data was undertaken to identify BWS populations. A retrospective review of the Health Canada Special Access Program records generated epidemiology and the utilization of antivenom for BWS envenomations in Canada. The geographical distribution of BWS species is limited to along the southern Canadian border. From January 2009 to December 2015, there were five BWS envenomations that required treatment with antivenom and all cases occurred in British Columbia. An average patient age of 41 yr ± 21 SD (range 7-59) was observed, along with three of the five patients being female. The average number of vials used for treatment was 2 ± 1 SD (range 1-3). BWS Antivenin was also obtained by facilities in Alberta, Ontario, and Nova Scotia, but not used in any of these jurisdictions. Further investigation is necessary to determine the annual incidence of BWS envenomations and if treatment with BWS antivenin is required.

Allocybaeina littlewalteri (Araneae: Cybaeidae): a new genus and species endemic to northwestern California.

Various undescribed Cybaeina Chamberlin Ivie (Araneae: Dictynoidea: Cybaeidae) and Cybaeina-like taxa are known from forested habitats in the west coast of North America. Most have very restricted ranges within the northern portion of the Californian Floristic Province, a well-known biodiversity hotspot. Here we describe Allocybaeina Bennett gen. nov. and its single included species, Allocybaeina littlewalteri Bennett spec. nov. This infrequently collected species is restricted to forested habitat in a small area of the coastal watersheds of southern Humboldt and western Mendocino Counties in northwestern California, U.S.A. In addition to descriptions we provide diagnoses, illustrations, a distribution map, and discuss conservation implications for this distinctive new genus and species.

Araneae of Canada.

In 1979 nearly 1400 spider species in 32 families either had been recorded (1249) or were believed to occur (~140) in Canada. Twenty years later, although significant progress had been made in survey efforts in some regions, Canada's spider inventory had only increased by approximately 7% to roughly 1500 species known or expected to occur. The family count had increased to 38 but only two additions were truly novel (five family additions and one family deletion were the result of advances in family-level systematics). The first comprehensive taxonomic checklist of Canadian spider species was published in 2010 documenting the regional distributions of 1376 species representing 42 families (three novel since 1999). From 2010 through 2017 new national records steadily accumulated resulting in the current (2018) Canadian inventory of 1477 species classified in 45 families (one novel since 2010). Although there has been close to a 20% increase in the number of spider species recorded in Canada since 1979, much greater increases have occurred in some of the regional species checklists, indicating increasing knowledge of the regional distribution of species previously recorded elsewhere in Canada. For example the regional checklists for Newfoundland, British Columbia, and Prince Edward Island have increased by 69%, 339%, and 520%, respectively. The national and regional increases reflect significant advances in the first two decades of the 21st Century in spider faunistics research in previously under-sampled habitats and regions and the development of molecular techniques and consequent barcoding of spiders. Of the 1477 species recorded in Canada, 92% have been successfully DNA barcoded resulting in 1623 unique Barcode Index Numbers (BINs). At least 25 of the BINs are associated with relatively easily distinguished but undescribed morpho-species. The majority, however, appear to indicate the existence of many cryptic species within Canada's known spider fauna. These data, coupled with the fact that novel Canadian or even Nearctic spider species records (including of undescribed species) continue to accumulate annually (especially in habitat-diverse regions such as British Columbia), suggest that Canada's tally of spider species may approach or even exceed 1800.

Cybaeus (Araneae: Cybaeidae): the adenes species group of the Californian clade.

Species of North American Cybaeus L. Koch (Araneae: Dictynoidea: Cybaeidae) are common moist-forest spiders classified in Holarctic and Californian clades. Here we review the adenes species group of the Californian clade. We recognize nine species: Cybaeus adenes Chamberlin Ivie, C. amicus Chamberlin Ivie, C. auburn Bennett spec. nov., C. grizzlyi Schenkel, C. pearcei Bennett spec. nov., C. reducens Chamberlin Ivie, C. sanbruno Bennett, C. schusteri Bennett spec. nov., and C. torosus Bennett spec. nov. The species of the adenes group have extremely restricted ranges in west central California from Sonoma and Napa Counties south to northern Monterey County and in east central California from Placer and El Dorado Counties. Descriptions, illustrations, range maps, and an identification key are provided for all species.

Cybaeus (Araneae: Cybaeidae): the Nearctic species of the Holarctic clade.

Species of North American Cybaeus L. Koch (Araneae: Dictynoidea: Cybaeidae) are classified in Holarctic and Californian clades. We review the Nearctic species of the Holarctic clade of these common moist-forest spiders. Twenty-one species grouped in informal tetricus (nine species) and angustiarum (twelve species) groups based on female genitalic characters are recognized, including four new species endemic to the western Nearctic: C. rothi Bennett sp. nov. (tetricus group) and C. charlesi Bennett sp. nov., C. harrietae Bennett sp. nov., and C. solanum Bennett sp. nov. (angustiarum group). Other Nearctic species in the tetricus group are C. cascadius Roth 1952, C. conservans Chamberlin & Ivie 1932, C. constrictus Chamberlin & Ivie 1942, C. eutypus Chamberlin & Ivie 1932, C. morosus Simon 1886, C. multnoma Chamberlin & Ivie 1942, C. paralypropriapus Bennett 2009, and C. waynei Bennett 2009. Other Nearctic species in the angustiarum group are C. bulbosus Exline 1935, C. giganteus Banks 1892, C. patritus Bishop & Crosby 1926, C. reticulatus Simon 1886, C. scopulatus Chamberlin & Ivie 1942, C. shoshoneus Chamberlin & Ivie 1932, C. signifer Simon 1886, C. silicis Barrows 1919, and C. sinuosus Fox 1937. Approximately half of the Nearctic Cybaeus species of the Holarctic clade are relatively widely distributed and frequently encountered; the remaining species have restricted ranges. Descriptions, illustrations, and range maps are provided for all species and identification keys are also included.

Apostenus ducati (Araneae: Liocranidae) sp. nov.: a second Nearctic species in the genus.

Apostenus ducati sp. nov. is described from montane areas in or adjacent to the Columbia River basin of southeastern British Columbia in Canada and northern Washington and northwestern Montana in the United States. This is the second Nearctic species of this primarily Palaearctic genus. Unlike most liocranids, A. ducati apparently is restricted to open rocky habitats, such as talus and scree slopes, and on mountain peaks. Throughout most of its range, specimens occur in low numbers and populations are patchily distributed. Also, populations appear to be concentrated in the upper regions of the Flathead River watershed in British Columbia, an area of significant and competing ecological and economic values. Because of these factors, A. ducati is potentially a species of conservation concern.

Infrared radiation from hot cones on cool conifers attracts seed-feeding insects.

Foraging animals use diverse cues to locate resources. Common foraging cues have visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile or gustatory characteristics. Here, we show a foraging herbivore using infrared (IR) radiation from living plants as a host-finding cue. We present data revealing that (i) conifer cones are warmer and emit more near-, mid- and long-range IR radiation than needles, (ii) cone-feeding western conifer seed bugs, Leptoglossus occidentalis (Hemiptera: Coreidae), possess IR receptive organs and orient towards experimental IR cues, and (iii) occlusion of the insects' IR receptors impairs IR perception. The conifers' cost of attracting cone-feeding insects may be offset by occasional mast seeding resulting in cone crops too large to be effectively exploited by herbivores.

(S,S)-2,12-, (S,S)-2,13-, and (S,S)-2,14-diacetoxyheptadecanes: sex pheromone components of red cedar cone midge, Mayetiola thujae.

We identified, synthesized, and field-tested the sex pheromone of female red cedar cone midge Mayetiola thujae (Hedlin) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae), a pest insect in red cedar Thuja plicata seed orchards. Coupled gas chromatographic (GC)-electroantennographic detection analyses of pheromone extract revealed three components (A, B, C) that elicited responses from antennae of males, all of which occurred below the detection threshold of the mass spectrometer and thus had to be identified without spectroscopic data. Taking into account (1) their retention indices (RI) on three GC columns (DB-5, DB-23, and DB-210), (2) intercolumn RI differentials, and (3) the molecular structures of known cecidomyiid pheromones, we synthesized seven candidate pheromone components: 2,10-, 2,11-, 2,12-, 2,13-, 2,14-, 2,15- and 2,16-diacetoxyheptadecanes. Of these, 2,12-, 2,13-, and 2,14-diacetoxyheptadecane had RIs on all columns consistent with those of A, B, and C and elicited strong antennal responses when tested at picogram levels. In field experiments with the twelve stereoselectively synthesized stereoisomers, only the SS-stereoisomers of 2,12-, 2,13-, and 2,14-diacetoxyheptadecane attracted male M. thujae. The three-component SS-stereoisomer blend was more attractive than the 12-component blend of all stereoisomers, suggesting that one or several nonnatural stereoisomers are inhibitory. One-, two-, and three-component lures of the SS-stereoisomers were equally effective in attracting male M. thujae, indicating redundancy in the pheromone. Identification of the M. thujae sex pheromone will allow development of pheromone-based monitoring, and possibly control, of M. thujae populations in T. plicata seed orchards.

(2R,7S)-diacetoxytridecane: sex pheromone of the aphidophagous gall midge, Aphidoletes aphidimyza.

In a recent study, evidence was presented that females of the aphidophagous midge Aphidoletes aphidimyza (Rondi) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) release a sex pheromone to attract mates. Our objectives were to identify and bioassay the pheromone. Coupled gas chromatographic-electroantennographic detection(GC-EAD) analyses of untreated and hydrogenated pheromone extract on three fused-silica columns (DB-5, DB-23, DB-210) revealed a single compound that elicited responses from male antennae. Retention index calculations of this candidate pheromone (CP) suggested that it was a di-acetate. Considering that most of the presently identified cecidomyiid pheromones consist of a 13-carbon chain with (at least) one acetate group in C2, we synthesized 2,6-, 2,7-, 2,8-, 2,9-, 2,10-, 2,11-, and 2,12-diacetoxytridecane. In GC analyses of these compounds, only 2,7-diacetoxytridecane cochomatographed with CP on all columns. In laboratory two-choice experiments with stereospecifically synthesized stereoisomers, only (2R,7S)-diacetoxytridecane elicited significant anemotatic responses by male A. aphidimyza. In trapping experiments in greenhouse compartments, only traps baited with (2R,7S)-diacetoxytridecane captured significant numbers of male A. aphidimyza, clearly revealing the absolute configuration of the pheromone. Failure of the stereoisomeric mixture (containing all four stereoisomers including the pheromone) to attract males is due to inhibitory characteristics of the (2R,7R)- and (2S,7R)-stereoisomers. The pheromone of zoophagous A. aphidimyza resembles those from phytophagous cecidomyiid midges, suggesting a common, diet-independent pathway for pheromone biosyntheses.

(Z,Z)-4,7-tridecadien-(S)-2-yl acetate: sex pheromone of Douglas-fir cone gall midge, Contarinia oregonensis.

Our objectives were to identify and field test the sex pheromone of female Douglas-fir cone gall midge, Contarinia oregonensis (Diptera: Ce-cidomyiidae). Coupled gas chromatographic-electroantennographic detection (GC-EAD) analyses of pheromone extract revealed a single compound (A) that elicited responses from male antennae. Hydrogenation of pheromone extract, followed by renewed GC-EAD analysis, revealed a new EAD-active compound with chromatographic characteristics identical to those of tridecan-2-yl acetate on five fused silica columns (DB-5, DB-210, DB-23, SP-1000, and Cyclodex-B). Syntheses, chromatography, and retention index calculations of all possible tridecen-2-yl acetates suggested that the candidate pheromone A was a tridecadien-2-yl acetate with nonconjugated double bonds. Synthetic candidate pheromone component (Z,Z)-4,7-tridecadien-2-yl acetate (Z4Z7) cochromatographed with A on all analytical columns and elicited comparable antennal activity. In GC-EAD analyses that separated the enantiomers (Z,Z)-4,7-tridecadien-(S)-2-yl acetate (2S-Z4Z7) and (Z,Z)-4,7-tridecadien-(R)-2-yl acetate (2R-Z4Z7) with baseline resolution, only 2S-Z4Z7 as a component in a racemic standard or in pheromone extract elicited antennal responses. In Douglas-fir seed orchards, sticky traps baited with 2S-Z4Z7 captured male C. oregonensis, whereas 2R-Z4Z7 was behaviorally benign. Comparable catches of males in traps baited with racemic Z4Z7 (50 microg) or virgin female C. oregonensis suggested that synthetic pheromone baits could be developed for monitoring C. oregonensis populations in commercial Douglas-fir seed orchards.