Effects of endotoxaemia on protein metabolism in rat fast-twitch skeletal muscle and myocardium.

BACKGROUND: It is unclear if the rat myocardium undergoes the same rapid reductions in protein content that are classically observed in fast-twitch skeletal muscle during endotoxaemia. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: To investigate this further, and to determine if there is any divergence in the response of skeletal muscle and myocardium in the mechanisms that are thought to be largely responsible for eliciting changes in protein content, Sprague Dawley rats were implanted with vascular catheters and administered lipopolysaccharide (LPS; 150 microg kg(-1) h(-1)) intravenously for 2 h, 6 h or 24 h (saline administered control animals were also included), after which the extensor digitorum longus (EDL) and myocardium were removed under terminal anaesthesia. The protein-to-DNA ratio, a marker of protein content, was significantly reduced in the EDL following 24 h LPS administration (23%; P<0.05), but was no different from controls in the myocardium. At the same time point, a significant increase in MAFbx/atrogin-1 and MuRF1 mRNA (3.7+/-0.7- and 19.5+/-1.9-fold increase vs. controls, respectively; P<0.05), in addition to protein levels of alpha1-3, 5-7 subunits of the 20S proteasome, were observed in EDL but not myocardium. In contrast, elevations in phosphorylation of p70 S6K residues Thr(421)/Ser(424), and 4E-BP1 residues Thr(37)/Thr(46) (P<0.05), consistent with an elevation in translation initiation, were seen exclusively in the myocardium of LPS-treated animals. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: In summary, these findings suggest that the myocardium does not undergo the same catabolic response as skeletal muscle during early endotoxaemia, partly due to the absence of transcriptional and signalling events in the myocardium typically associated with increased muscle proteolysis and the suppression of protein synthesis.

Mesenteric vasoconstriction and hindquarters vasodilatation accompany the pressor actions of exendin-4 in conscious rats.

The hemodynamic effects of the glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist, exendin-4, and putative underlying mechanisms were assessed in conscious male Sprague-Dawley rats. At a dose of 25 ng kg(-1) i.v., exendin-4 had little effect, but doses of 250 and 2500 ng kg(-1) had significant tachycardic effects (+66 +/- 9 and +95 +/- 16 beats min(-1) at 5 min, respectively) and pressor actions (+10 +/- 2 and +12 +/- 1 mm Hg), accompanied by substantial falls in mesenteric vascular conductance (-38 +/- 3% and -47 +/- 3%) and increases in hindquarters vascular conductance (+82 +/- 14% and +126 +/- 15%). The latter were likely due to adrenaline-mediated activation of beta(2) adrenoceptors since they were abolished by the beta(2) adrenoceptor antagonist, ICI 118551 [(+/-)-1-[2,3-(dihydro-7-methyl-1H-inden-4-yl)oxy]-3-[(1-methylethyl)amino]-2-butanol) hydrochloride], or propranolol [(RS)-1-[(1-methylethyl)amino]-3-(1-naphthalenyloxy)-2-propanol], and absent in adrenal-demedullated rats. In the presence of beta-adrenoceptor antagonism, the tachycardic effects of exendin-4 were suppressed, but the pressor action was enhanced. Enhancement of the pressor action of exendin-4 was not seen in adrenal-demedullated rats or in animals given phentolamine in addition to propranolol, consistent with a component of the pressor action of exendin-4 being due to an adrenaline-mediated positive inotropic effect mediated by alpha-adrenoceptors. The mesenteric vasoconstrictor effect of exendin-4 was unaffected by antagonism of alpha-adrenoceptors, vasopressin receptors, angiotensin receptors, or GLP-1 receptors, although antagonism of the latter substantially inhibited the hindquarter vasodilator effects of exendin-4. These results are consistent with exendin-4 having cardiovascular effects through GLP-1 receptor-dependent and -independent mechanisms, some of which involve sympathoadrenal activation.

Regional heterogeneity in the haemodynamic responses to urotensin II infusion in relation to UT receptor localisation.

The aim of the study was to measure regional haemodynamic responses to 6 h infusions of human urotensin II (hUII), to identify possible mediators of the effects observed, and to relate the findings to the distribution of urotensin II receptors (UT receptors). Male, Sprague-Dawley rats had pulsed Doppler flow probes and intravascular catheters implanted for measurement of regional haemodynamics in the conscious, freely moving state. Infusions of saline (0.4 ml h(-1)) or hUII (30, 300 and 3,000 pmol kg(-1) h(-1)) were given i.v. for 6 h, and the effects of pretreatment with indomethacin (5 mg kg(-1) h(-1)), N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME, 3 mg kg(-1) h(-1)) or propranolol (1 mg kg(-1); 0.5 mg kg(-1) h(-1)) on responses to hUII (300 pmol kg(-1) h(-1) for 6 h) were assessed. Cellular localisation of UT receptor-like immunoreactivity was determined in relevant tissues. hUII caused dose-dependent tachycardia and hindquarters vasodilatation, accompanied by a slowly developing rise in blood pressure. Haemodynamic effects of hUII were attenuated by propranolol or L-NAME and abolished by indomethacin. UT receptor-like immunoreactivity was detected in skeletal and vascular smooth muscle. The findings indicate that in conscious rats, infusions of hUII cause vasodilatation, which, of the vascular beds monitored, is selective for the hindquarters and dependent on cyclooxygenase products and nitric oxide. The pressor effect of hUII under these conditions is likely to be due to an increase in cardiac output, possibly due to a positive inotropic effect. UT receptor-like immunoreactivity present in skeletal muscle is consistent with the haemodynamic pattern.

Reduced baroreflex sensitivity is associated with increased vascular calcification and arterial stiffness.

INTRODUCTION: Vascular calcification is a critical determinant of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in chronic haemodialysis (HD) patients. The pathophysiology underlying this observation remains obscure. Baroreceptor sensitivity (BRS) is important in the maintenance of an appropriate cardiovascular status both at rest and under the physiological stress of HD. BRS is determined by both the mechanical properties of the vascular wall, mediating the transfer of transmural pressure, and afferent and efferent autonomic function. We aimed to study the association between arterial structure, function and BRS in chronic HD patients. METHODS: We studied 40 chronic HD patients mean age 62+/-2 (26-86) years who had received HD for a mean 40+/-4 (9-101) months. Spontaneous BRS was assessed using software studying the relationship between inter-beat variability and beat to beat changes in systolic blood pressure. Functional characteristics of conduit arteries (pulse wave analysis) were studied with applanation tonometry at the radial artery. Arterial calcification was assessed in lower limbs using reconstructed multi-slice computed tomography and quantified with volume-corrected calcification scores within the superficial femoral artery. RESULTS: Mean BRS was 4.43+/-0.44 ms/mmHg, with a wide range from 1.0 to 11.5 ms/mmHg. This correlated with arterial stiffness as measured by time to shoulder calculated from the central pulse wave analysis (r = 0.4, P = 0.01). BRS was also associated with vascular calcification (P = 0.01) but not by other factors such as dialysis vintage, age or pre-dialysis systolic/diastolic blood pressure. CONCLUSION: The reduction in BRS and the resulting aberrant blood pressure response to the physiological stress and volume changes of HD may be important in the further understanding of the pathophysiology of the increased mortality in HD patients with vascular calcification.

Regional hemodynamic actions of selective corticotropin-releasing factor type 2 receptor ligands in conscious rats.

In conscious male Sprague-Dawley rats, we compared regional hemodynamic actions of the selective corticotropin-releasing factor type 2 (CRF(2)) receptor ligands human and mouse urocortin 2 (hUCN2 and mUCN2, respectively) with those of CRF. Bolus i.v. doses of 3 and 30 pmol kg(-1) hUCN2, mUCN2, or CRF had no significant hemodynamic actions, but at doses of 300 and 3000 pmol kg(-1), all three peptides caused dose-dependent tachycardia and hypotension, with rapid-onset, short-duration, mesenteric vasodilatation and slower-onset, more prolonged hindquarters vasodilatation but little or no change in renal vascular conductance. Pretreatment with the nonselective CRF receptor antagonist astressin or the selective CRF(2) receptor antagonist antisauvagine 30 abolished all the cardiovascular actions of all three peptides. Indomethacin had no effect on responses to hUCN2, and there was no evidence for any involvement of nitric oxide (NO) in the vasodilator actions of hUCN2. There was no evidence that recruitment of angiotensin- and endothelin-mediated vasoconstrictor mechanisms counteracted the vascular actions of hUCN2. The results indicate that the hemodynamic effects of i.v. hUCN2, mUCN2, and CRF depend on activation of CRF(2) receptors and do not involve NO or prostanoids.

Bolus injection of human UII in conscious rats evokes a biphasic haemodynamic response.

A biphasic cardiovascular response to bolus i.v. injection of human urotensin II (hUII, 3 nmol kg(-1)) in conscious, male, Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats was identified and underlying mechanisms were explored. Initially (0-5 min) there was tachycardia, hypotension and mesenteric and hindquarters vasodilatation; later (30-120 min), tachycardia, hindquarters vasodilatation and a modest rise in blood pressure occurred. Pretreatment with indomethacin or N(G) nitro-l-arginine methylester (l-NAME) reduced the mesenteric vasodilator response to hUII, and abolished the late tachycardia and hindquarters vasodilatation. Indomethacin also abolished the hypotension and early hindquarters vasodilatation, and substantially reduced the initial tachycardia. Indomethacin and l-NAME together prevented all haemodynamic responses to hUII. Inhibition of inducible NOS had no effect on responses to hUII, whereas inhibition of neuronal NOS reduced the delayed tachycardic response to hUII but did not significantly affect the vasodilatation. Only the initial tachycardic response to hUII was antagonised by propranolol. In spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR), the initial haemodynamic responses to hUII were qualitatively similar to those in SD rats, although there was also a modest renal vasodilatation. The secondary response comprised a smaller tachycardia and a small rise in blood pressure, with no significant hindquarters vasodilatation. Haemodynamic responses to hUII were not enhanced by endothelin and angiotensin receptor antagonism in either SD rats or in SHRs. One interpretation of these results is that the primary response to bolus injection of hUII is prostanoid- or prostanoid- and NO-mediated (mesenteric vasodilatation) and that this triggers secondary events, which are dependent on eNOS (hindquarters vasodilatation) and neuronal NOS (tachycardia).

Regional hemodynamic effects of the N-(2-benzoylphenyl)-L-tyrosine peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma ligand, GI 262570 [(S)-2-(2-benzoylphenylamino)-3-[4-[2-(5-methyl-2-phenyl-2-oxazol-4-yl)ethoxy]phenyl]propionic acid], in conscious rats.

This study provides novel data on the regional hemodynamic effects of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma activator, GI 262570 [(S)-2-(2-benzoylphenylamino)-3-[4-[2-(5-methyl-2-phenyl-2-oxazol-4-yl)ethoxy]phenyl]propionic acid], in conscious, male Sprague-Dawley rats. Administration of GI 262570 twice daily for 4 days caused a slowly developing, modest fall in mean arterial blood pressure, associated with a progressive, hyperemic hindquarters vasodilatation, but with no consistent changes in renal or mesenteric hemodynamics. The hindquarters vasodilator effect of GI 262570 was not inhibited by the beta2-adrenoceptor antagonist, ICI 118551 ((+/-)-1-[2,3-(dihydro-7-methyl-1H-inden-4-yl)oxy]-3-[(1-methylethyl) amino]-2-butanol hydrochloride), and was still apparent in the presence of the alpha-adrenoceptor antagonist, phentolamine. Neither the latter, nor antagonism of angiotensin (AT1) and endothelin (ETA and ETB) receptors unmasked vasodilator responses to GI 262570 in the renal or mesenteric vascular beds. In the presence of GI 262570, vasodilator responses to acetylcholine and vasoconstrictor responses to methoxamine were normal. Furthermore, the cardiovascular responses to nonselective nitric-oxide synthase inhibition were not influenced by GI 262570. Collectively, these results indicate that the vasodilator action of GI 262570 is specific to the hindquarters vascular bed (of those studied), does not involve alpha- or beta2-adrenoceptors, and is not associated with a change in basal or stimulated nitric oxide release.

Haemodynamic effects of the selective phosphodiesterase 5 inhibitor, UK-357,903, in conscious SHR.

1. Regional haemodynamic responses to a continuous, 4-day infusion of the selective phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitor, UK-357,903 (0.133 or 1.33 mg x kg(-1) h(-1)) were measured in conscious spontaneously hypertensive rats, and compared with those of enalapril (1 mg x kg(-1) h(-1)). 2. Both doses of UK-357,903 caused modest reductions in mean blood pressure that were not dose-dependent and only significantly different from the vehicle effects on Day 1 of the study (mean -11.8 and -15.3 mmHg for low and high doses, respectively). UK-357,903 had mesenteric and hindquarters vasodilator effects, which were, again, similar for both dose levels and only significantly different from vehicle on Day 1. Neither dose of UK-357,903 affected renal vascular conductance or heart rate. 3. Although the haemodynamic effects of UK-357,903 were not clearly dose-related and some appeared to wane with time, geometric mean plasma levels of UK-357,903 increased in proportion to dose, and were sustained throughout the infusion period. Furthermore, plasma cyclic guanosine monophosphate, a biomarker of phosphodiesterase 5 inhibition, was persistently elevated, and increased with increasing dose. 4. Enalapril caused a fall in mean blood pressure on day 1 (-14.1 mmHg) that was associated with dilatation in renal, mesenteric and hindquarters vascular beds. The haemodynamic effects of enalapril were sustained or increased over the 4-day infusion, although plasma free drug levels were stable. 5. In conclusion, we have shown regional and temporal changes in the haemodynamic effects of UK-357,903, which may be due to activation of compensatory mechanisms, but there were no signs of functional compensation to the cardiovascular effects of enalapril.

Acute cardiovascular effects of sibutramine in conscious rats.

Sibutramine is a serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor, used in the treatment of obesity. In this study, cardiovascular effects of sibutramine (0.9, 3, or 9 mg kg(-1) i.p.) were measured in conscious Sprague-Dawley rats, in the absence and presence of beta- and/or alpha-adrenoceptor antagonism (with propranolol and/or phentolamine, respectively). Sibutramine caused pressor and tachycardic effects, with celiac and mesenteric vasoconstrictions, and hyperemic hindquarters vasodilatation. Pretreatment with propranolol inhibited the tachycardic and hindquarters vasodilator effect of sibutramine, whereas phentolamine inhibited the pressor and vasoconstrictor effects of sibutramine. In the presence of phentolamine, sibutramine caused hyperemic mesenteric vasodilatation. In preconstricted, isolated, mesenteric vessels, sibutramine and its metabolites BTS 54505 (N-desmethylsibutramine) and BTS 54354 (N-didesmethylsibutramine) (10 microM) produced significant vasodilations. Neither sibutramine nor BTS 54505 enhanced vessel sensitivity to norepinephrine, whereas BTS 54 354 produced a significant leftward shift in the concentration-response curve to norepinephrine. Collectively, the results indicate that the overt cardiovascular effects of sibutramine involve alpha-adrenoceptor-mediated celiac and mesenteric vasoconstrictions, and beta-adrenoceptor-mediated hindquarters vasodilatation and tachycardia. The mesenteric vasodilator response to sibutramine, seen in the presence of phentolamine, may be a direct effect of the drug and/or its metabolites, on vessel tone. The cardiovascular effects of sibutramine in vivo may be secondary to inhibition of peripheral and/or central reuptake of monoamines by the metabolites BTS 54354 and/or BTS 54505. It remains to explain why BTS 54354, but not BTS 54505, enhanced norepinephrine sensitivity in vitro, because both metabolites are potent inhibitors of the norepinephrine transporter.

Comparative regional haemodynamic effects of the nitric oxide synthase inhibitors, S-methyl-L-thiocitrulline and L-NAME, in conscious rats.

1. The regional haemodynamic effects of the putative nNOS inhibitor, S-methyl-L-thiocitrulline (SMTC), were compared with those of the nonselective NOS inhibitor, N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME), in conscious, male Sprague-Dawley rats. 2. SMTC (0.3 mg kg(-1) bolus) produced a significant, short-lived, pressor effect associated with renal, mesenteric and hindquarters vasoconstriction; the same dose of L-NAME did not affect mean blood pressure (BP), although it caused bradycardia and mesenteric vasoconstriction. 3. At the highest dose tested (10 mg kg(-1)), L-NAME produced a significantly greater bradycardia and fall in mesenteric vascular conductance than SMTC, although the initial pressor response to SMTC was greater, but less sustained, than that to L-NAME. 4. Infusion of SMTC or L-NAME (3 mg kg(-1) h(-1)) induced rises in BP and falls in renal, mesenteric and hindquarters vascular conductances, but the effects of L-NAME were greater than those of SMTC, and L-NAME also caused bradycardia. 5. The renal vasodilator response to acetylcholine was markedly attenuated by infusion of L-NAME, but unaffected by SMTC. The hindquarters vasodilatation induced by salbutamol was attenuated by L-NAME, but not by SMTC. The mesenteric vasodilator response to bradykinin was modestly enhanced by SMTC, but not by L-NAME. The depressor and renal, mesenteric and hindquarters vasodilator responses to sodium nitroprusside were enhanced by L-NAME, whereas SMTC modestly enhanced the hypotensive and renal vasodilator effects of sodium nitroprusside, but attenuated the accompanying tachycardia. 6. The results are consistent with the cardiovascular effects of low doses of SMTC being attributable to nNOS inhibition.

Fostering orphan receptors: an indispensable role for integrative, in vivo, haemodynamic studies.

The assessment of cardiovascular effects of well-recognised ligands for their known receptors can produce misleading results if measurements are restricted to blood pressure and heart rate in anaesthetised animals. Therefore, we propose that the most reliable delineation of any role for a particular ligand-receptor system in cardiovascular regulation can only be achieved by determination of the detailed haemodynamic effects of manipulating the system in vivo, in the absence of anaesthesia. This approach is powerful because, firstly, differences between in vitro and in vivo effects, possibly attributable to disparities between receptor genotype and receptor phenotype, are highlighted; and secondly, regional heterogeneity of cardiovascular effects, possibly in the absence of changes in systemic arterial blood pressure, can be detected.