Chronic Methadone Use Alters the CD8+ T Cell Phenotype In Vivo and Modulates Its Responsiveness Ex Vivo to Opioid Receptor and TCR Stimuli.

Endogenous opioid peptides are released at sites of injury, and their cognate G protein-coupled opioid receptors (ORs) are expressed on immune cells. Although drugs of misuse appropriate ORs, conflicting reports indicate immunostimulatory and immunosuppressive activity, in that opioid users have elevated infection risk, opioids activate innate immune cells, and opioids attenuate inflammation in murine T cell-mediated autoimmunity models. The i.v. use of drugs transmits bloodborne pathogens, particularly viruses, making the study of CD8+ T cells timely. From a cohort of nonuser controls and methadone users, we demonstrate, via t-Stochastic Neighbor Embedding and k-means cluster analysis of surface marker expression, that chronic opioid use alters human CD8+ T cell subset balance, with notable decreases in T effector memory RA+ cells. Studying global CD8+ T cell populations, there were no differences in expression of OR and several markers of functionality, demonstrating the need for finer analysis. Purified CD8+ T cells from controls respond to opioids ex vivo by increasing cytoplasmic calcium, a novel finding for OR signal transduction, likely because of cell lineage. CD8+ T cells from controls exposed to µ-OR agonists ex vivo decrease expression of activation markers CD69 and CD25, although the same markers are elevated in µ-OR-treated cells from methadone users. In contrast to control cells, T cell subsets from methadone users show decreased expression of CD69 and CD25 in response to TCR stimulus. Overall, these results indicate a direct, selective role for opioids in CD8+ T cell immune regulation via their ability to modulate cell responses through the opioid receptors and TCRs.

Insights From Dynamic Neuro-Immune Imaging on Murine Immune Responses to CNS Damage.

Evolving technologies and increasing understanding of human physiology over the past century have afforded our ability to intervene on human diseases using implantable bio-materials. These bio-electronic devices present a unique challenge through the creation of an interface between the native tissue and implantable bio-materials: the generation of host immune response surrounding such devices. While recent developments in cancer immunology seek to stimulate the immune system against cancer, successful long-term application of implantable bio-material devices need to durably minimize reactive immune processes at involved anatomical sites. Peripheral immune system response has been studied extensively for implanted bio-materials at various body sites. Examples include tooth composites (Gitalis et al., 2019), inguinal hernia repair (Heymann et al., 2019), and cardiac stents and pacemaker leads (Slee et al., 2016). Studies have also been extended to less well-studied immune reactivity in response to CNS neural-electronic implant devices. Recent technological advances in 2-Photon Laser Scanning Microscopy (2P-LSM) have allowed novel insights into in vivo immune response in a variety of tissue microenvironments. While imaging of peripheral tissues has provided an abundance of data with regards to immune cell dynamics, central nervous system (CNS) imaging is comparatively complicated by tissue accessibility and manipulation. Despite these challenges, the results of dynamic intravital neuro-immune imaging thus far have provided foundational insights into basic CNS biology. Utilizing a combination of intravital and ex vivo 2P-LSM, we have observed novel pathways allowing immune cells, stromal cells, cancer cells and proteins to communicate between the CNS parenchyma and peripheral vasculature. Similar to what has been reported in the intestinal tract, we have visualized myeloid cells extend dendritic processes across the blood brain barrier (BBB) into pial blood vessels. Furthermore, transient vessel leaks seen during systemic inflammation provide opportunities for cellular protein to be exchanged between the periphery and CNS. These insights provide new, visual information regarding immune surveillance and antigen presentation within the CNS. Furthermore, when combining intravital 2P-LSM and microfluidic devices complexed with mathematical modeling, we are gaining new insights into the intravascular behavior of circulating immune cells. This new knowledge into the basic mechanisms by which cells migrate to and interact with the CNS provide important considerations for the design of neuro-electronic biomaterials that have the potential to connect the peripheral-neural microenvironments into a unique, artificial interface.

Chemical disruption of the pyroptotic pore-forming protein gasdermin D inhibits inflammatory cell death and sepsis.

Dysregulation of inflammatory cell death is a key driver of many inflammatory diseases. Pyroptosis, a highly inflammatory form of cell death, uses intracellularly generated pores to disrupt electrolyte homeostasis and execute cell death. Gasdermin D, the pore-forming effector protein of pyroptosis, coordinates membrane lysis and the release of highly inflammatory molecules, such as interleukin-1ß, which potentiate the overactivation of the innate immune response. However, to date, there is no pharmacologic mechanism to disrupt pyroptosis. Here, we identify necrosulfonamide as a direct chemical inhibitor of gasdermin D, the pyroptotic pore-forming protein, which binds directly to gasdermin D to inhibit pyroptosis. Pharmacologic inhibition of pyroptotic cell death by necrosulfonamide is efficacious in sepsis models and suggests that gasdermin D inhibitors may be efficacious clinically in inflammatory diseases.

Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Nuclear Translocator in Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells Is Required for Optimal Peripheral Perfusion Recovery.

BACKGROUND: Limb ischemia resulting from peripheral vascular disease is a common cause of morbidity. Vessel occlusion limits blood flow, creating a hypoxic environment that damages distal tissue, requiring therapeutic revascularization. Hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs) are key transcriptional regulators of hypoxic vascular responses, including angiogenesis and arteriogenesis. Despite vascular smooth muscle cells' (VSMCs') importance in vessel integrity, little is known about their functional responses to hypoxia in peripheral vascular disease. This study investigated the role of VSMC HIF in mediating peripheral ischemic responses. METHODS AND RESULTS: We used ArntSMKO mice with smooth muscle-specific deletion of aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator (ARNT, HIF-1ß), required for HIF transcriptional activity, in a femoral artery ligation model of peripheral vascular disease. ArntSMKO mice exhibit impaired perfusion recovery despite normal collateral vessel dilation and angiogenic capillary responses. Decreased blood flow manifests in extensive tissue damage and hypoxia in ligated limbs of ArntSMKO mice. Furthermore, loss of aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator changes the proliferation, migration, and transcriptional profile of cultured VSMCs. ArntSMKO mice display disrupted VSMC morphologic features and wrapping around arterioles and increased vascular permeability linked to decreased local blood flow. CONCLUSIONS: Our data demonstrate that traditional vascular remodeling responses are insufficient to provide robust peripheral tissue reperfusion in ArntSMKO mice. In all, this study highlights HIF responses to hypoxia in arteriole VSMCs critical for the phenotypic and functional stability of vessels that aid in the recovery of blood flow in ischemic peripheral tissues.

Biomimetic post-capillary venule expansions for leukocyte adhesion studies.

Leukocyte adhesion and extravasation are maximal near the transition from capillary to post-capillary venule, and are strongly influenced by a confluence of scale-dependent physical effects. Mimicking the scale of physiological vessels using in vitro microfluidic systems allows the capture of these effects on leukocyte adhesion assays, but imposes practical limits on reproducibility and reliable quantification. Here we present a microfluidic platform that provides multiple (54-512) technical replicates within a 15-minute sample collection time, coupled with an automated computer vision analysis pipeline that captures leukocyte adhesion probabilities as a function of shear and extensional stresses. We report that in post-capillary channels of physiological scale, efficient leukocyte adhesion requires erythrocytes forcing leukocytes against the wall, a phenomenon that is promoted by the transitional flow in post-capillary venule expansions and dependent on the adhesion molecule ICAM-1.

Live-cell visualization of gasdermin D-driven pyroptotic cell death.

Pyroptosis is a form of cell death important in defenses against pathogens that can also result in a potent and sometimes pathological inflammatory response. During pyroptosis, GSDMD (gasdermin D), the pore-forming effector protein, is cleaved, forms oligomers, and inserts into the membranes of the cell, resulting in rapid cell death. However, the potent cell death induction caused by GSDMD has complicated our ability to understand the biology of this protein. Studies aimed at visualizing GSDMD have relied on expression of GSDMD fragments in epithelial cell lines that naturally lack GSDMD expression and also lack the proteases necessary to cleave GSDMD. In this work, we performed mutagenesis and molecular modeling to strategically place tags and fluorescent proteins within GSDMD that support native pyroptosis and facilitate live-cell imaging of pyroptotic cell death. Here, we demonstrate that these fusion proteins are cleaved by caspases-1 and -11 at Asp-276. Mutations that disrupted the predicted p30-p20 autoinhibitory interface resulted in GSDMD aggregation, supporting the oligomerizing activity of these mutations. Furthermore, we show that these novel GSDMD fusions execute inflammasome-dependent pyroptotic cell death in response to multiple stimuli and allow for visualization of the morphological changes associated with pyroptotic cell death in real time. This work therefore provides new tools that not only expand the molecular understanding of pyroptosis but also enable its direct visualization.

Dissociable functional networks of the human dentate nucleus.

The cerebellar dentate nucleus has been reported to project to motor and prefrontal cortical regions in nonhuman primates from 2 anatomically distinct areas. However, despite a wealth of human neuroimaging data implicating the cerebellum in motor and cognitive behaviors, evidence of dissociable motor and cognitive networks comprising the human dentate is lacking. To investigate the existence of these 2 networks in the human brain, we used resting-state functional connectivity magnetic resonance imaging. The resting-state fMRI signal was extracted from regions of interest in the dorsal and ventral dentate nucleus. We report a "motor" network involving the dorsal dentate, anterior regions of the cerebellum, and the precentral gyrus, and a "cognitive" network involving the ventral dentate, Crus I, and prefrontal cortex. The existence of these 2 distinct networks supports the notion that cerebellar involvement in cognitive tasks is above and beyond that associated with motor response components.

Transcallosal sensorimotor fiber tract structure-function relationships.

Recent studies have demonstrated neuroanatomically selective relationships among white matter tract microstructure, physiological function, and task performance. Such findings suggest that the microstructure of transcallosal motor fibers may reflect the capacity for interhemispheric inhibition between the primary motor cortices, although full characterization of the transcallosal inhibitory sensorimotor network is lacking. Thus, the goal of this study was to provide a comprehensive description of transcallosal fibers connecting homologous sensorimotor cortical regions and to identify the relationship(s) between fiber tract microstructure and interhemispheric inhibition during voluntary cortical activity. To this end, we assessed microstructure of fiber tracts connecting homologous sensorimotor regions of the cortex with diffusion tensor imaging. We also assessed interhemispheric inhibition by eliciting the ipsilateral silent period (iSP) within the same participants. We mapped mutually exclusive transcallosal connections between homologous sensorimotor regions and computed quantitative metrics of each fiber tract. Paralleling work in non-human primates, we found the densest interhemispheric sensorimotor connections to be between the medial motor areas. Additionally, we provide a midsagittal callosal atlas in normalized Montreal Neurological Institute (MNI) space for future studies to use when investigating callosal fiber tracts connecting primary and secondary sensorimotor cortices. Finally, we report a strong, positive relationship (r = 0.76) between strength of interhemispheric inhibition (iSP) and microstructure of interhemispheric fibers that is specific to tracts connecting the primary motor cortices. Thus, increased fiber microstructure in young adults predicts interhemispheric inhibitory capacity.

Resting state cortico-cerebellar functional connectivity networks: a comparison of anatomical and self-organizing map approaches.

The cerebellum plays a role in a wide variety of complex behaviors. In order to better understand the role of the cerebellum in human behavior, it is important to know how this structure interacts with cortical and other subcortical regions of the brain. To date, several studies have investigated the cerebellum using resting-state functional connectivity magnetic resonance imaging (fcMRI; Krienen and Buckner, 2009; O'Reilly et al., 2010; Buckner et al., 2011). However, none of this work has taken an anatomically-driven lobular approach. Furthermore, though detailed maps of cerebral cortex and cerebellum networks have been proposed using different network solutions based on the cerebral cortex (Buckner et al., 2011), it remains unknown whether or not an anatomical lobular breakdown best encompasses the networks of the cerebellum. Here, we used fcMRI to create an anatomically-driven connectivity atlas of the cerebellar lobules. Timecourses were extracted from the lobules of the right hemisphere and vermis. We found distinct networks for the individual lobules with a clear division into "motor" and "non-motor" regions. We also used a self-organizing map (SOM) algorithm to parcellate the cerebellum. This allowed us to investigate redundancy and independence of the anatomically identified cerebellar networks. We found that while anatomical boundaries in the anterior cerebellum provide functional subdivisions of a larger motor grouping defined using our SOM algorithm, in the posterior cerebellum, the lobules were made up of sub-regions associated with distinct functional networks. Together, our results indicate that the lobular boundaries of the human cerebellum are not necessarily indicative of functional boundaries, though anatomical divisions can be useful. Additionally, driving the analyses from the cerebellum is key to determining the complete picture of functional connectivity within the structure.

The effects of working memory resource depletion and training on sensorimotor adaptation.

We have recently demonstrated that visuospatial working memory performance predicts the rate of motor skill learning, particularly during the early phase of visuomotor adaptation. Here, we follow up these correlational findings with direct manipulations of working memory resources to determine the impact on visuomotor adaptation, a form of motor learning. We conducted two separate experiments. In the first one, we used a resource depletion strategy to investigate whether the rate of early visuomotor adaptation would be negatively affected by fatigue of spatial working memory resources. In the second study, we employed a dual n-back task training paradigm that has been shown to result in transfer effects [1] over five weeks to determine whether training-related improvements would boost the rate of early visuomotor adaptation. The depletion of spatial working memory resources negatively affected the rate of early visuomotor adaptation. However, enhancing working memory capacity via training did not lead to improved rates of visuomotor adaptation, suggesting that working memory capacity may not be the factor limiting maximal rate of visuomotor adaptation in young adults. These findings are discussed from a resource limitation/capacity framework with respect to current views of motor learning.

A spatial explicit strategy reduces error but interferes with sensorimotor adaptation.

Although sensorimotor adaptation is typically thought of as an implicit form of learning, it has been shown that participants who gain explicit awareness of the nature of the perturbation during adaptation exhibit more learning than those who do not. With rare exceptions, however, explicit awareness is typically polled at the end of the study. Here, we provided participants with either an explicit spatial strategy or no instructions before learning. Early in learning, explicit instructions greatly reduced movement errors but also resulted in increased trial-to-trial variability and longer reaction times. Late in adaptation, performance was indistinguishable between the explicit and implicit groups, but the mechanisms underlying performance improvements remained fundamentally different, as revealed by catch trials. The progression of implicit recalibration in the explicit group was modulated by the use of an explicit strategy: these participants showed a lower level of recalibration as well as decreased aftereffects. This phenomenon may be due to the reduced magnitude of errors made to the target during adaptation or inhibition of implicit learning mechanisms by explicit processing.