Hydration status in elite wrestlers, judokas, boxers, and taekwondo athletes on competition day.

Weight category athletes are known for practicing rapid weight loss before competition weigh-in. After weigh-in, athletes strive to restore euhydration and body mass through food and fluid intake. The aim of the current study was to assess prevalence of hypohydration at competition time among elite athletes' in four different combat sports, and how water intake and timing of official weigh-in were related to hydration status. Participants were 31 taekwondo practitioners and wrestlers who performed evening weigh-in (EWI) the night before competition day and had thus time for rehydration, and 32 boxers and judokas conducting competition day morning weigh-in (MWI). In total, 32% were female. Urine specific gravity (USG) was measured by refractometry on the competition day's first morning urine sample. Hypohydration was defined as USG ≥ 1.020 and serious hypohydration as USG > 1.030. Water intake was measured by means of dietary records. The prevalence of hypohydration was 89% in the morning of competition day. Serious hypohydration was also prevalent. This was found in over 50% of MWI athletes and in 42% of the EWI group. A higher water intake, from both fluids and solid foods, in the evening before competition day was not associated with a more favorable hydration status the following morning. In conclusion, neither weigh-in close to competition nor evening weigh-in with more time for rehydration seems to prevent hypohydration before competition.

Dietary intake at competition in elite Olympic combat sports.

The purpose of the current study was to investigate elite female (n = 21) and male (n = 47) combat sports athletes' (n = 68; mean age (± SD) 21.3 ± 3.8 years; mean height 177 ± 10.2 cm) dietary intake between weigh-in and the first bout in Olympic combat sports. The data were collected at 6 separate tournaments and measurements included estimated food records, time for recovery, and body weight (BW) at weigh-in and first match. In total, 33 athletes participated in wrestling and taekwondo, sports with extended recovery times, and 35 athletes in judo and boxing, sports with limited recovery time. The results displayed that despite a mean consumption of food and drinks corresponding to 4.2 kg, the athletes only regained an average of 1.9 kg BW during recovery. Water accounted for 86% of the total intake. For each liter of water consumed, athletes gained 0.57 kg BW, when excluding heavy weight athletes (n = 5). Carbohydrate consumption was 5.5 g/kg BW, compared with the recommended 8-10 g/kg BW. In total, one-quarter of the consumed water originated from carbohydrate-rich drinks. Given the average recovery time of 18 (wrestling, taekwondo) versus 8 hr (judo, boxing), the former group consumed twice the amount of water, carbohydrates, protein, and fat as the latter group. In conclusion, a large proportion of the participants did not meet the recovery nutrition guidelines for carbohydrates. In addition, the discrepancy between nutrient intake and weight gain points to the physiological barriers to retaining fluids during a limited recovery time after engaging in weight making practices.

Practices of weight regulation among elite athletes in combat sports: a matter of mental advantage?

CONTEXT: The combination of extensive weight loss and inadequate nutritional strategies used to lose weight rapidly for competition in weight-category sports may negatively affect athletic performance and health. OBJECTIVE: To explore the reasoning of elite combat-sport athletes about rapid weight loss and regaining of weight before competitions. DESIGN: Qualitative study. SETTING: With grounded theory as a theoretical framework, we employed a cross-examinational approach including interviews, observations, and Internet sources. Sports observations were obtained at competitions and statements by combat-sport athletes were collected on the Internet. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Participants in the interviews were 14 Swedish national team athletes (9 men, 5 women; age range, 18 to 36 years) in 3 Olympic combat sports (wrestling, judo, and taekwondo). DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Semistructured interviews with 14 athletes from the Swedish national teams in wrestling, judo, and taekwondo were conducted at a location of each participant's choice. The field observations were conducted at European competitions in these 3 sports. In addition, interviews and statements made by athletes in combat sports were collected on the Internet. RESULTS: Positive aspects of weight regulation other than gaining physical advantage emerged from the data during the analysis: sport identity, mental diversion, and mental advantage. Together and individually, these categories point toward the positive aspects of weight regulation experienced by the athletes. Practicing weight regulation mediates a self-image of being "a real athlete." Weight regulation is also considered mentally important as a part of the precompetition preparation, serving as a coping strategy by creating a feeling of increased focus and commitment. Moreover, a mental advantage relative to one's opponents can be gained through the practice of weight regulation. CONCLUSIONS: Weight regulation has mentally important functions extending beyond the common notion that combat-sport athletes reduce their weight merely to gain a physical edge over their opponents.

The food and weight combat. A problematic fight for the elite combat sports athlete.

Weight reduction in athletes is motivated by optimisation of performance, aesthetic reasons or to achieve a pre-designated weight. Previous research has shown that dietary restraint and short term weight regulation frequently takes place among combat sports athletes such as wrestlers and judokas. The aim of this study was to explore negative experiences related to dietary strategies and weight-making practises used by elite combat sports athletes. Using semi-structured interviews, 14 Swedish national team athletes in wrestling, judo and taekwondo were asked about their dietary intake and their engagement in both long- and short-term weight regulation practises. Content analysis of the transcribed interviews, display a constant struggle regarding nutritional standpoints. Sport demands such as achieving an optimal weight and nutritional intake were considered as central in order for excellent performance. Adhering to these demands was found to be problematic however, primarily because of; (1) negative physiological responses and (2) opposing ideals of a non-sport related nature, such as the importance of the athletes to be healthy and social in their everyday lives.

Health discourse in Swedish television food advertising during children's peak viewing times.

Food marketing influences children's food preferences and consumption and is important to consider in the prevention of child obesity. In this paper, health messages in commercials during children's peak viewing times were analysed by examining how food is articulated in the health discourse. In total, 82 food commercials from 66h of television recordings of the most popular commercial channels with children in Sweden (TV3, TV4 and Channel 5) were analysed with discourse theoretical tools according to Laclau and Mouffe and with a focus on rhetoric. Physical, mental and social health aspects were present in 71% of the commercials. Three health discourse types; a medical (food as protection and treatment), a hedonic (food as feeling good) and a social discourse type (food as caring) were discerned. In relation to these, the heart symbol, lifestyle associations and nature/the natural were elements that could be interpreted in different ways. Moreover, foods carrying unhealthy associations were promoted in the health discourse and presented as especially healthy by offensive rhetoric. The analysis raises awareness of the prevailing health messages in food marketing. Children and parents should be encouraged to develop their critical thinking about television food advertising and how it may influence social norms and dietary practices.

Decreased fraction of exhaled nitric oxide in obese subjects with asthma symptoms: data from the population study INTERGENE/ADONIX.

BACKGROUND: Several studies have demonstrated an association between obesity and asthma. However, it is uncertain if fraction of exhaled nitric oxide (Feno), which is used as a marker of airway inflammation, and atopy are associated with BMI. The aim of this study was to examine if obese subjects with asthma symptoms have a different phenotype of asthma than nonobese subjects as indicated by Feno. METHODS: The subjects (N = 2,187) consisted of women and men, aged 25 to 74, living in Gothenburg, Sweden, who participated in the randomly selected INTERGENE study cohort. Measurements included anthropometric measures, bioelectric impedance, Feno, pulmonary function, and blood samples for IgE; questionnaires included items on respiratory symptoms. Obesity was defined as BMI ≥ 30 kg/m(2). In this cross-sectional analysis, general linear models were used to analyze how Feno was associated with anthropometry, body composition, wheezing, and atopy. RESULTS: In nonobese subjects, wheezing was associated with raised Feno and atopy, whereas in contrast, obese subjects who reported wheezing had lower Feno than obese subjects without wheezing (16.1 vs 19.1 parts per billion, P < .01). The prevalence of atopy was similar in both of those subgroups (25.0% vs 20.7%, P = .4). Similarly, in 395 subjects (19%) who reported wheezing, Feno was negatively associated with BMI, waist-to-hip ratio, and percentage of body fat, whereas no significant relationships were observed in those without respiratory symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Wheezing was significantly associated with reduced Feno in obese subjects, whereas there was a positive association between wheezing and Feno among the nonobese subjects, indicating a possible difference in asthma phenotype, based on body weight.

Food patterns and cardiovascular disease risk factors: the Swedish INTERGENE research program.

BACKGROUND: Analyzing the impact of the intake of many foods simultaneously provides additional knowledge about analyses of nutrients and might make it easier to implement recommendations for the public. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to examine food patterns in a Swedish population and determine how they are related to metabolic risk factors for cardiovascular disease. DESIGN: The study is based on data from the INTERGENE population study of women and men aged 25-74 y in western Sweden. Dietary patterns were identified with cluster analysis of 93 food frequencies reported by 3452 participants. Associations with features of the metabolic syndrome, including blood lipids, blood pressure, and anthropometric measures, were analyzed. RESULTS: Five distinct food patterns were identified, of which one was interpreted as a "healthy" reference pattern. This healthy cluster was distinguished by more frequent consumption of high-fiber and low-fat foods and lower consumption of products rich in fat and sugar. The 4 other clusters differed significantly from the reference cluster with respect to prevalence of cardiovascular disease risk factors and the metabolic syndrome. For example, body mass index and waist-to-hip ratio were significantly higher in a cluster characterized by high consumption of energy-dense drinks and white bread and low consumption of fruit and vegetables (P < 0.0001 and P = 0.004, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: It is possible to distinguish food patterns that are related to obesity and obesity-related cardiovascular disease risk factors in contrast with a more healthy pattern conforming with current dietary guidelines. Thus, the results indicate no reason for questioning the current recommendations.

Trends in blood lipid levels, blood pressure, alcohol and smoking habits from 1985 to 2002: results from INTERGENE and GOT-MONICA.

BACKGROUND: Favourable trends in cardiovascular disease have been observed in Sweden. The aim of this study was to study secular trends in a variety of cardiovascular risk factors. METHODS: Total-, low-density (LDL) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) serum cholesterol; serum triglycerides; systolic and diastolic blood pressure; self-reported smoking and alcohol consumption were studied in repeated cross-sectional surveys. Data from four population-based samples in Goteborg, Sweden were used-WHO MONICA project 1985, 1990 and 1995, and INTERGENE 2002. A total of 2931 females and 2691 males aged 25-64 consisting of 1021-1624 randomly selected subjects at each survey period participated. RESULTS: Serum cholesterol levels showed downward trends but the decline in both total- and LDL-cholesterol seems to be levelling off from 1995 and onwards. No significant changes were observed in serum triglyceride, HDL-serum cholesterol or blood pressure levels. The majority of the participants had higher total- and LDL-serum cholesterol levels than currently recommended. Antihypertensive medical treatment increased in women and the oldest men. The prevalence of smoking decreased from 39 to 25% in women and 35 to 20% in men respectively from 1985-2002. In contrast, the prevalence of subjects consuming strong beer and wine, respectively, at least once a week almost doubled from 1990-2002. CONCLUSIONS: Cardiovascular risk factor patterns change continuously and need to be monitored. The favourable trends in LDL-serum cholesterol and smoking in the Goteborg surveys were paralleled by less favourable trends in being overweight and alcohol consumption.