Injection Technique Guidelines for Diabetes: Sharp and to the Point

Diabetes is the world's fastest growing chronic disease and affects people of all ages. Reliable statistics are not readily available for South Africa; but data held by companies that supply insulin suggest that approximately 200 000 people in South Africa use injectable therapies to treat their diabetes. Health outcomes are affected if the incorrect injection technique is used; and this is a frequent occurrence which can be remedie

Ethanol inhibits single-unit responses in the nucleus accumbens evoked by stimulation of the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala.

We studied the actions of intoxicating doses of ethanol on excitatory inputs from the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala, a major afferent system projecting to the nucleus accumbens (NAcc). In view of the hypothesized role of opioid receptors on the effects of ethanol on NAcc physiology, we also explored whether naloxone modulates ethanol-induced suppression of NAcc excitability in halothane anesthetized and freely moving unanesthetized rats. Intraperitoneal administration of ethanol (1.2-1.4 g/kg) markedly suppressed a subgroup of amygdala-activated NAcc neurons. The ethanol-induced reduction in amygdala-activated NAcc neurons was not reversed by naloxone (5.0 mg/kg, intraperitoneally). Moreover, naloxone had no effect on the suppressive effects of ethanol on NAcc spontaneous activity in either halothane-anesthetized or unanesthetized freely moving preparations. These findings suggest that opiate mechanisms either are not participating or are not solely responsible for the inhibitory effects of acute intoxicating doses of ethanol on NAcc physiology.

Sensitivity of nucleus accumbens neurons in vivo to intoxicating doses of ethanol.

The nucleus accumbens septi (NAcc) is considered an important component of the final common pathway involved in the reinforcing properties of ethanol. We studied the effects of intraperitoneal administration of ethanol on spontaneous, glutamate-activated, and fimbria-activated NAcc neurons in acute anesthetized and freely moving unanesthetized rats. Ethanol significantly reduced the firing rate of spontaneous and glutamate-activated NAcc neurons in both electrophysiological preparations. Stimulation of the ipsilateral fimbria evoked single-unit activity in NAcc neurons with two characteristic latencies (early, 7.21 +/- 0.74 msec; late, 18.24 +/- 0.66 msec). Intoxicating doses of ethanol inhibited the recruitment of late, but not of early, fimbria-activated NAcc neurons. These data demonstrate electrophysiological evidence for the existence of neurons in the core region of the NAcc that are sensitive and insensitive to acute systemic ethanol administration.

Electrophysiological evidence for reciprocal connectivity between the nucleus accumbens septi and ventral pallidal region.

Responses of nucleus accumbens (NAS) neurons to ventral pallidum (VP) stimulation were examined in anesthetized rats. Results demonstrated: (1) NAS to VP projection neurons reside primarily in the relatively lateral aspects of the NAS, and (2) substantial VP to NAS feedback also exists. These feedback projections are widely distributed throughout the NAS. Moreover, functionally identifiable NAS neuronal subpopulations were revealed by analysis of unit responses to concurrent VP and fimbria stimulation: (1) most, but not all NAS units responded to VP and fimbria stimulation in qualitatively divergent ways; (2) many NAS units demonstrated monosynaptic convergence of fimbria and VP terminations onto individual NAS units; and (3) in other cases, identified NAS-VP projection neurons were also monosynaptically activated by fimbria stimulation.