Learning induces EPO/EPOr expression in memory relevant brain areas, whereas exogenously applied EPO promotes remote memory consolidation.

Memory and learning allow animals to appropriate certain properties of nature with which they can navigate in it successfully. Memory is acquired slowly and consists of two major phases, a fragile early phase (short-term memory, <4 h) and a more robust and long-lasting late one (long-term memory, >4 h). Erythropoietin (EPO) prolongs memory from 24 to 72 h when animals are trained for 5 min in a place recognition task but not when training lasted 3 min (short-term memory). It is not known whether it promotes the formation of remote memory (≥21 days). We address whether the systemic administration of EPO can convert a short-term memory into a long-term remote memory, and the neural plasticity mechanisms involved. We evaluated the effect of training duration (3 or 5 min) on the expression of endogenous EPO and its receptor to shed light on the role of EPO in coordinating mechanisms of neural plasticity using a single-trial spatial learning test. We administered EPO 10 min post-training and evaluated memory after 24 h, 96 h, 15 days, or 21 days. We also determined the effect of EPO administered 10 min after training on the expression of arc and bdnf during retrieval at 24 h and 21 days. Data show that learning induces EPO/EPOr expression increase linked to memory extent, exogenous EPO prolongs memory up to 21 days; and prefrontal cortex bdnf expression at 24 h and in the hippocampus at 21 days, whereas arc expression increases at 21 days in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex.

Basolateral amygdala stimulation plus water maze training restore dentate gyrus LTP and improve spatial learning and memory.

Synaptic plasticity is a key mechanism of neural plasticity involved in learning and memory. A reduced or impaired synaptic plasticity could lead to a deficient learning and memory. On the other hand, besides reducing hipocampal dependent learning and memory, fimbria-fornix lesion affects LTP. However, we have consistently shown that stimulation of the basolateral amygdala (BLA) 15 min after water maze training is able to improve spatial learning and memory in fimbria fornix lesioned rats while also inducing changes in the expression of plasticity-related genes expression in memory associated brain regions like the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. In this study we test that hypothesis: whether BLA stimulation 15 min after water maze training can improve LTP in the hippocampus of fimbria-fornix lesioned rats. To address this question, we trained fimbria-fornix lesioned rats in water maze for four consecutive days, and the BLA was bilaterally stimulated 15 min after each training session.Our data show that trained fimbria-fornix lesioned rats develop a partially improved LTP in dentated gyrus compared with the non-trained fimbria-fornix lesioned rats. In contrast, dentated gyrus LTP in trained and BLA stimulated fimbria-fornix lesioned rats improved significantly compared to the trained fimbria-fornix lesioned rats, but was not different from that shown by healthy animals. BLA stimulation in non-trained FF lesioned rats did not improve LTP; instead produces a transient synaptic depression. Restoration of the ability to develop LTP by the combination of training and BLA stimulation would be one of the mechanisms involved in ameliorating memory deficits in lesioned animals.

Amygdala stimulation ameliorates memory impairments and promotes c-Fos activity in fimbria-fornix-lesioned rats.

Recently we provided data showing that amygdala stimulation can ameliorate spatial memory impairments in rats with lesion in the fimbria-fornix (FF). The mechanisms for this improvement involve early gene expression and synthesis of BDNF, MAP-2, and GAP43 in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. Now we have studied which brain structures are activated by the amygdala using c-Fos as a marker of neural activation. First, we studied neuronal activation after tetanic stimulation to the amygdala in intact rats. We then carried out a second study in FF-lesioned rats in which the amygdala was stimulated 15 min after daily spatial memory training in the water maze. Our results showed that amygdala stimulation produces widespread brain activation, that includes cortical, thalamic, and brain stem structures. Activation was particularly intense in the dentate gyrus and the prefrontal cortex. Training in the water maze increased c-Fos positive nuclei in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and in medial prefrontal cortex. Amygdala stimulation to trained FF-lesioned rats induced an increase of neural activity in the dentate gyrus and medial prefrontal cortex relative to the FF-lesioned, but not stimulated group, like the c-Fos activity seen in trained control rats. Based on these and previous results we explain the mechanisms of amygdala reinforcement of neural plasticity and the partial recovery of spatial memory deficits.

Erythropoietin improves object placement recognition memory in a time dependent manner in both, uninjured animals and fimbria-fornix-lesioned male rats.

An increasing number of reports sustain a possible role of erythropoietin (EPO) as neuroprotective agent. In two previous articles we have evaluated EPO as plasticity promoting agent, and to contribute the restoration of brain function affected by acquired damage. We have shown that EPO is able to induce an increased synaptic efficacy in vivo along with a plasticity promoting effect. In the Morris water maze EPO administration to fimbria-fornix lesioned male rats induces a significant improvement of their spatial memory, affected by the lesion. Singularly, EPO was only effective when administered shortly after training (10 min) but not after several hours (5 h), suggesting a specific EPO effect on time dependent plasticity process. In the present paper we have expanded this line of evidence using a low stress paradigm of object placement recognition in lesioned and healthy male rats. The memory trace in this model is short-lasting; animals could recognize the change in object position when tested 24 h after, but not 48 or 72 h after the acquisition session. EPO administration 10 min after acquisition significantly prolongs retention to, at least, 72 h in healthy rats. No effect was seen if EPO was administered 5 h after training, suggesting a specific EPO modulatory effect on the consolidation process. Remarkably, early EPO treatment to fimbria fornix lesioned animals reverts the memory deficit caused by the lesion. An increased expression of the plasticity related gene arc, was also confirmed in the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex, that is likely to be involved in the behavioral improvement observed.

EPO induces changes in synaptic transmission and plasticity in the dentate gyrus of rats.

Erythropoietin has shown wide physiological effects on the central nervous system in animal models of disease, and in healthy animals. We have recently shown that systemic EPO administration 15 min, but not 5 h, after daily training in a water maze is able to induce the recovery of spatial memory in fimbria-fornix chronic-lesioned animals, suggesting that acute EPO triggers mechanisms which can modulate the active neural plasticity mechanism involved in spatial memory acquisition in lesioned animals. Additionally, this EPO effect is accompanied by the up-regulation of plasticity-related early genes. More remarkably, this time-dependent effects on learning recovery could signify that EPO in nerve system modulate specific living-cellular processes. In the present article, we focus on the question if EPO could modulate the induction of long-term synaptic plasticity like LTP and LTD, which presumably could support our previous published data. Our results show that acute EPO peripheral administration 15 min before the induction of synaptic plasticity is able to increase the magnitude of the LTP (more prominent in PSA than fEPSP-Slope) to facilitate the induction of LTD, and to protect LTP from depotentiation. These findings showing that EPO modulates in vivo synaptic plasticity sustain the assumption that EPO can act not only as a neuroprotective substance, but is also able to modulate transient neural plasticity mechanisms and therefore to promote the recovery of nerve function after an established chronic brain lesion. According to these results, EPO could be use as a molecular tool for neurorestaurative treatments.

Hippocampal neurotrophins after stimulation of the basolateral amygdala, and memory improvement in lesioned rats.

PURPOSE: To investigate a possible role of neurotrophins in the memory improving effect of stimulating the basolateral amygdala. METHODS: The BDNF and NGF levels were measured in the hippocampus of fimbria-fornix lesioned male rats after four days of training in the water maze and stimulation of the basolateral amygdala. RESULTS: The behavioral results confirm that daily post-training stimulation of the amygdala improves the learning abilities of the lesioned animals. BDNF increased in lesioned and trained animals, but stimulating the basolateral amygdala induces a significantly greater increase. NGF showed a slight (but significant) increase in fimbria-fornix lesioned and trained animals, but stimulating the amygdala does not produce a further increase. In separate groups of animals we measured the levels of both neurotrophins in acute experiments, after 2 and 24 hours of stimulating the amygdala. BDNF was significantly increased at both times, while NGF showed again only slight increases (significant at 24 h). CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that the BDNF response to amygdala stimulation might be of functional importance in the observed learning improvement. The changes in NGF are most likely due to the accumulation of this protein after removal of the septal axons.

El Homo sapiens, la fe y el efecto placebo / Homo sapiens, faith and the placebo effect

Los llamados efecto placebo y nocebo son efectos reales que resultan de la interacción entre la actividad mental y el estado funcional del organismo. Esta interacción se puede describir hoy en términos precisos a través de la influencia que las estructuras del sistema límbico ejercen sobre el hipotálamo y las regiones del tallo cerebral que controlan las funciones endocrina, motora y vegetativa. El conocimiento de estos mecanismos pone de relieve la importancia de factores sugestivos, como la confianza en el terapeuta o en el tratamiento indicado, en la curación de enfermedades o de sus secuelas. Existen evidencias de que algunas terapias sin una base científica sólida como la acupuntura, la homeopatía o la terapia floral, logran sus resultados a través de estos mecanismos. Incorporar los principios psicobiológicos que origina el efecto placebo a la relación médico paciente, puede resultar una contribución positiva para una medicina más efectiva y humana, pero siempre dentro de los límites que imponen la ética de no mentir y el respeto a la integridad e inteligencia de los pacientes

The so called placebo and nocebo effects are real, and result from the interaction between the mental activity and the functioning of the body. This interaction is presently described in precise terms as the influence exerted by limbic structures on the hypothalamus and on the brain stem's nuclei that control the endocrine, motor and vegetative functions. Understanding of these mechanisms discloses the important role played by suggestion, like trusting your therapist or trusting the treatment, in the cure of diseases and their sequels. There is also evidence that therapies without a strong scientific foundation, like acupuncture, homeopathy or flower therapy, can achieve some results based on these mechanisms. The introduction of the psychobiological principles governing the effect of placebo into the medical practice could contribute to a more effective and human medicine, provided that the ethical limits imposed by the truth and the respect to the patient´s integrity and intelligence are observed

El Homo sapiens, la fe y el efecto placebo / Homo sapiens, faith and the placebo effect

Los llamados efecto placebo y nocebo son efectos reales que resultan de la interacción entre la actividad mental y el estado funcional del organismo. Esta interacción se puede describir hoy en términos precisos a través de la influencia que las estructuras del sistema límbico ejercen sobre el hipotálamo y las regiones del tallo cerebral que controlan las funciones endocrina, motora y vegetativa. El conocimiento de estos mecanismos pone de relieve la importancia de factores sugestivos, como la confianza en el terapeuta o en el tratamiento indicado, en la curación de enfermedades o de sus secuelas. Existen evidencias de que algunas terapias sin una base científica sólida como la acupuntura, la homeopatía o la terapia floral, logran sus resultados a través de estos mecanismos. Incorporar los principios psicobiológicos que origina el efecto placebo a la relación médico paciente, puede resultar una contribución positiva para una medicina más efectiva y humana, pero siempre dentro de los límites que imponen la ética de no mentir y el respeto a la integridad e inteligencia de los pacientes(AU)

The so called placebo and nocebo effects are real, and result from the interaction between the mental activity and the functioning of the body. This interaction is presently described in precise terms as the influence exerted by limbic structures on the hypothalamus and on the brain stem's nuclei that control the endocrine, motor and vegetative functions. Understanding of these mechanisms discloses the important role played by suggestion, like trusting your therapist or trusting the treatment, in the cure of diseases and their sequels. There is also evidence that therapies without a strong scientific foundation, like acupuncture, homeopathy or flower therapy, can achieve some results based on these mechanisms. The introduction of the psychobiological principles governing the effect of placebo into the medical practice could contribute to a more effective and human medicine, provided that the ethical limits imposed by the truth and the respect to the patient´s integrity and intelligence are observed(AU)

Efficacy and tolerance of a neurological restoration program in stroke patients.

The present paper shows the result of an open prospective study performed to evaluate the tolerance and efficacy of a program for neurological restoration (PRN) in stroke patients. The PRN is organized 4 weeks cycles - 39 hours per week - and applied by a team of physical, occupational, and speech therapists, physiatrists, psychologists, clinicians and nurses; directed by a neurologist. The first phase of treatment aims to increase the physical capacity and tolerance to exercise. The second phase trains specific abilities (balance, posture, gait and handling). Drugs were only used to modulate physical or mood disorders, spasticity, or pain. The study was performed in 80 stroke patients attended in our institution (2005-2007). Only patients with a confirmed diagnosis of stroke in the carotid territories, over 15 years old, and not least than 6 months post-ictal evolution were included. Tolerance to treatment was very good, with only 4 adverse events not related to treatment. The neurological condition was evaluated using the Scandinavian Stroke Scale (SSS), and the functional condition using the Barthel Index (BI). The results show significant improvements both in the neurological (113.45 ± 1.59%) and functional (130.11 ± 5.17%) condition after one treatment cycle, which improved further when therapy continued for a second cycle (233.71 ± 7.76% and 207.62 ± 27.16% respectively). Severity of the impairment was not a negative predictor of the outcome. Age correlated negatively with the initial condition, but does not prevent improvement. Sex, time of evolution, affected hemisphere or interactions among them did not influence the outcome. These results demonstrate that the PRN is well tolerated and effective promoting recovery even in chronic stroke patients.

Emotional tagging--a simple hypothesis in a complex reality.

At the psychological level, the notion that emotional events may be better remembered is a long accepted view. Its translation into neurobiological mechanisms has led to the proposal of the 'emotional tag' concept, according to which, the activation of the amygdala by emotionality would result in modulation of neural plasticity in brain regions (e.g. hippocampus) involved in forming memory of the emotional event. In line with this idea, amygdala activation (by electrical stimulation or exposure to an emotional event) has been demonstrated to affect synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus. Furthermore, the mechanisms associated with the formation of a 'synaptic tag', which is a mechanism proposed to explain the specificity of synaptic plasticity, could subserve the effects of the 'emotional tag' on synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus. The literature reviewed here supports this view but points also to additional factors that should be taken into consideration, such as intensity, duration, controllability of the emotional experience, age of exposure and relations between the emotional aspects of the experience and the event-to-be-remembered. These factors do not only affect the behavioral outcome of the stressful experience but also find their expression in variations in the neuronal and biochemical pathways that are activated, and in the way those will interact with memory formation mechanisms. While adding complexity to the notion of the 'emotional tag', taking such factors into consideration is likely to bring us closer to elucidating the neural mechanisms involved in emotional memory modulation and to our understanding of the neurobiology of associated disorders, such as PTSD.

Stimulation of the nucleus raphe medialis modifies basal synaptic transmission at the dentate gyrus, but not long-term potentiation or its reinforcement by stimulation of the basolateral amygdala.

Affective factors importantly interact with behavior and memory. Physiological mechanisms that underlie such interactions are objects of intensive studies. This involves the direct investigation of its relevance to understand learning and memory formation as well as the search for possibilities to treat memory disorders. The prolonged maintenance of long-term potentiation (LTP) - a cellular model for memory formation - is characterized by neuromodulatory, associative requirements. During the last years, we have delineated a neural system that may be responsible for affective-cognitive interactions at the cellular level. The stimulation of the basolateral amygdala (BLA), within an effective, associative time window, reinforces a normally transient, protein synthesis-independent early-LTP (less than 4-6h) into a long-lasting, protein synthesis-dependent late-LTP in the dentate gyrus (DG) in freely moving rats (Frey et al., 2001 [12]). LTP reinforcement by stimulation of the BLA was mediated by cholinergic projection of the medial septum to the DG, and the noradrenergic projection from the locus coeruleus (Bergado et al., 2007 [2]). We were now interested to investigate a possible interaction of the nucleus raphe medialis (NRM) with DG-LTP. Although, NRM stimulation resulted in a depressing effect on basal synaptic transmission, we did not observe any interactions with early-LTP or with the BLA-DG LTP-reinforcement system.

Autologous bone marrow stem cell neurotransplantation in stroke patients. An open study.

PURPOSE: Bone marrow stem cells (BMSC) were transplanted into the perilesional area in five patients bearing sequels of stroke, to evaluate the safety of the procedure and tolerance to the transplanted cells. METHODS: Cells were obtained from bone marrow samples taken from the same patient and stereotactically implanted into the targets, determined using a combination of images, and trans-operative recording of multiunit activity. The cells were implanted in several points along tracts in the perilesional region. RESULTS: No important adverse events derived from surgery or transplant were observed during the one year follow-up period, or detected using a combination of tests and functional measurements applied pre- and post-surgically. In contrast, some improvements were observed regarding the neurological condition of the patients, but the small number of patients in the study does not allow any conclusive statement. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate that BMSC can be safely transplanted into the brain of patients, with excellent tolerance and without complications, using the methods described here.

Cholinergic afferents to the locus coeruleus and noradrenergic afferents to the medial septum mediate LTP-reinforcement in the dentate gyrus by stimulation of the amygdala.

Transient long-term potentiation (E-LTP) can be transformed into a long-lasting LTP (L-LTP) in the dentate gyrus (DG) by behavioral stimuli with high motivational content. Previous research from our group has identified several brain structures, such as the basolateral amygdala (BLA), the locus coeruleus (LC), the medial septum (MS) and transmitters as noradrenaline (NA) and acetylcholine (ACh) that are involved in these processes. Here we have investigated the functional interplay among brain structures and systems which result in the conversion of a E-LTP into a L-LTP (reinforcement) by stimulation of the BLA (BLA-R). We used topical application of specific drugs into DG, and other targets, while following the time course of LTP induced by stimulation of the perforant pathway (PP) to study their specific contribution to BLA-R. One injection cannula, a recording electrode in the DG and stimulating electrodes in the PP and the BLA were stereotactically implanted one week before electrophysiological experiments. Topical application of atropine or propranolol into the DG blocked BLA-R in both cases, but the effect of propranolol occurred earlier, suggesting a role of NA within the DG during an intermediate stage of LTP maintenance. The injection of lidocaine into the LC abolished BLA-R indicating that the LC is part of the functional neural reinforcing system. The effect on the LC is mediated by cholinergic afferents because application of atropine into the LC produced the same effect. Injection of lidocaine inactivating the MS also abolished BLA-R. This effect was mediated by noradrenergic afferents (probably from the LC) because the application of propranolol into the MS prevented BLA-R. These findings suggest a functional loop for BLA-R involving cholinergic afferents to the LC, a noradrenergic projection from the LC to the DG and the MS, and finally, the cholinergic projection from the MS to the DG.

Stimulation of the basolateral amygdala improves the acquisition of a motor skill.

PURPOSE: We have previously shown that the stimulation of limbic structures related to affective life such as the amygdale can improve and reinforce neural plastic processes related to hippocampus-dependent forms of explicit memory, as spatial memory and LTP. We now assessed whether this effect is restricted to the mentioned structure and memory type, or represents a more general form of modulatory influence. METHODS: Young, male Sprague Dawley rats were implanted stereotactically with one electrode in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) and trained to acquire a motor skill using their right anterior limb. A group of animals received 3 trains of 15 impulses at the BLA 15 minutes after each daily training session. A second group of implanted animals was handled in the same way, but not stimulated, while a third group was not implanted. After reaching the training criterion the left motor cortex was mapped by the observation of the movements induced by stimuli applied in discrete points of the cortex. RESULTS: Cortical representation of the anterior limb was increased in all trained animals, showing that the motor cortex is involved in the acquisition of the new skill. Animals receiving stimulation of the BLA showed similar cortical changes, but learned faster than non-stimulated controls. CONCLUSIONS: Reinforcement of neural plasticity by the activation of the amygdala is not restricted to hippocampus-dependent explicit memory, but it might represent a universal mechanism to modulate plasticity.

Post-training stimulation of the basolateral amygdala improves spatial learning in rats with lesion of the fimbria-fornix.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the capacity of amygdala stimulation to improve neural plasticity in animals bearing lesions of the fimbria-fornix (FF) system. METHODS: The animals were lesioned under narcosis (chloral hydrate, 420 mg/kg ip.) using a bilateral transection of the FF procedure. During the same surgery some animals were implanted with an electrode in the right basolateral amygdala (BLA) to allow the electrical stimulation of this structure. Training was carried out one week after surgery using a Morris water maze. Animals were trained in four consecutive days (8 trials/day) in the non-visible platform condition except in the fourth day in which only 4 trials were performed followed by a probe trial in which the escape platform was removed. On day 5 of training 8 trials with visible platform were performed. After each of the first 3 training days one group of animals received trains of electrical stimulation to the BLA, while control groups were not stimulated. A group of non-lesioned animals served as control. The location of the electrode was confirmed histologically after the end of the experiments. RESULTS: The learning capacity of the lesioned animals was improved by the electrical stimulation of the amygdala. The latency to find the submerged platform within this group approaches that of the non lesioned animals in the course of training (2-way ANOVA with repeated measures), while other lesioned animals continued to show severely impaired learning abilities. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first evidence that stimulating the BLA can positively influence the learning abilities of lesioned animals. Further experiments should contribute to improve the stimulation paradigms to make it more effective, if possible.

Long-term potentiation in the dentate gyrus in freely moving rats is reinforced by intraventricular application of norepinephrine, but not oxotremorine.

Growing evidence suggests that processes of synaptic plasticity, such as long-term potentiation (LTP) occurring in one synaptic population, can be modulated by consolidating afferents from other brain structures. We have previously shown that an early-LTP lasting less than 4 h (E-LTP) in the dentate gyrus can be prolonged by stimulating the basolateral amygdala, the septum or the locus coeruleus within a specific time window. Pharmacological experiments have suggested that noradregeneric (NE) and/or cholinergic systems might be involved in these effects. We have therefore investigated whether the direct intraventricular application of agonists for NE- or muscarinic receptors is able to modulate synaptic plasticity. E-LTP was induced at the dentate gyrus of freely moving rats using a mild tetanization protocol that induces only an E-LTP. NE or oxotremorine (OXO) were applied icv 10 min after the tetanus. Results show that low doses of NE (1.5 and 5 nM) effectively prolong LTP. A higher dose (50 nM) was not effective. None of the OXO doses employed (5, 25, and 50 nM) showed similar effects. These results stress the importance of transmitter-specific modulatory influences on the time course of synaptic plasticity, in particular NE whose application mimics the reinforcing effect of directly stimulating limbic structures on LTP.

Behavioral reinforcement of long-term potentiation in rat dentate gyrus in vivo is protein synthesis-dependent.

A transient, protein synthesis-independent long-term potentiation (early-LTP, <4 h) can be reinforced into a maintained protein synthesis-dependent late-LTP (>4 h) by specific electrical stimulation of limbic structures (J. Neurosci. 21 (2001) 3697). Similarly, LTP-modulation can be obtained by behavioral stimuli with strong motivational content. However, the requirement of protein synthesis during behavioral reinforcement has not been shown so far. Thus, we have studied here this specific question using a behavioral reinforcement protocol, i.e. allowing water-deprived animals to drink 15 min after induction of early-LTP. This procedure transformed early-LTP into late-LTP. Anisomycin, a reversible protein synthesis inhibitor, abolished behavioral LTP-reinforcement. These results demonstrate that behavioral reinforcement depends on protein synthesis.

Aging impairs amygdala-hippocampus interactions involved in hippocampal LTP.

Aging impairs amygdala-hippocampus interactions involved in hippocampal LTP. NEUROBIOL. AGING. We have recently shown that the stimulation of the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala (BLA) is able to prolong early-LTP (<4h) into late-LTP (>4h) in the dentate gyrus. To study whether aging affects this interaction, aged (24-27 months) rats were used, classified as cognitively impaired (I), or non-impaired (N) by means of their results in the Morris water maze. Paired pulses (30-90 ms interval) showed no differences among age groups. Among young controls, the early-LTP induced in the dentate gyrus by stimulation of the perforant path (PP) was prolonged in a late-LTP when the BLA was stimulated 15 min later. In aged-impaired rats the stimulation of the PP induced a reduced LTP, decaying to baseline in less than 2 h. BLA stimulation was without effect. Aged non-impaired rats showed an early-LTP identical to that of young animals; however, stimulation of the BLA showed no effect. These results suggest that deficient synaptic plasticity and memory functions in aged animals might be caused, in part by impaired mechanisms of heterosynaptic reinforcement.

Aging and synaptic plasticity: a review.

Aging affects all systems, but the brain seems to be particularly vulnerable to the action of negative, age-dependent factors. A gradual loss of memory functions is one of the earliest and most widespread consequences of brain aging. The causes for such impairment are still unclear. Long-term potentiation (LTP) is one form of neural plasticity, which has been proposed as the cellular correlate for memory. LTP is affected by aging, and such alteration might be causally related to memory dysfunction. In the present paper, we review the evidence sustaining the existence of a causal link between cognitive and LTP impairments, as well as the possible mechanisms involved. New results indicate a possible involvement of a deficient reinforcement of LTP by affective influences.

Nerve growth factor improves evoked potentials and long-term potentiation in the dentate gyrus of presenile rats

Chronic infusion of nerve growth factor (NGF, 1,2 æg/day) for 14 days to presenile rats (17 monthsat the beginning of treatment) that showed and initial cognitive impairment led to an improved lon-term in the dentale gyrus. Both the relative increase of the slope of the population excitatory postsynaptic potential and that of the population spike were enhanced by NGF pretreatment after long-term potentiation induction at 400 Hz. The treatment was also able to increase the diminished baseline amplitude of the population spike, an effect not seen when the treatment was applied to older animals (Bergado J, Fernÿndez CI, G›mez Soria A, Gonzÿlez O, 1997. Chronic intraventricular infusion with NGF improves LTP in old cognitively-impaired rats, Brain Res 770:1-9) stressing the importance of an early start of trophic therapy to achieve better results(AU)