Towards an accurate rolling resistance: Estimating intra-cycle load distribution between front and rear wheels during wheelchair propulsion from inertial sensors.

Accurate assessment of rolling resistance is important for wheelchair propulsion analyses. However, the commonly used drag and deceleration tests are reported to underestimate rolling resistance up to 6% due to the (neglected) influence of trunk motion. The first aim of this study was to investigate the accuracy of using trunk and wheelchair kinematics to predict the intra-cyclical load distribution, more particularly front wheel loading, during hand-rim wheelchair propulsion. Secondly, the study compared the accuracy of rolling resistance determined from the predicted load distribution with the accuracy of drag test-based rolling resistance. Twenty-five able-bodied participants performed hand-rim wheelchair propulsion on a large motor-driven treadmill. During the treadmill sessions, front wheel load was assessed with load pins to determine the load distribution between the front and rear wheels. Accordingly, a machine learning model was trained to predict front wheel load from kinematic data. Based on two inertial sensors (attached to the trunk and wheelchair) and the machine learning model, front wheel load was predicted with a mean absolute error (MAE) of 3.8% (or 1.8 kg). Rolling resistance determined from the predicted load distribution (MAE: 0.9%, mean error (ME): 0.1%) was more accurate than drag test-based rolling resistance (MAE: 2.5%, ME: -1.3%).

From theory to practice: Monitoring mechanical power output during wheelchair field and court sports using inertial measurement units.

An important performance determinant in wheelchair sports is the power exchanged between the athlete-wheelchair combination and the environment, in short, mechanical power. Inertial measurement units (IMUs) might be used to estimate the exchanged mechanical power during wheelchair sports practice. However, to validly apply IMUs for mechanical power assessment in wheelchair sports, a well-founded and unambiguous theoretical framework is required that follows the dynamics of manual wheelchair propulsion. Therefore, this research has two goals. First, to present a theoretical framework that supports the use of IMUs to estimate power output via power balance equations. Second, to demonstrate the use of the IMU-based power estimates during wheelchair propulsion based on experimental data. Mechanical power during straight-line wheelchair propulsion on a treadmill was estimated using a wheel mounted IMU and was subsequently compared to optical motion capture data serving as a reference. IMU-based power was calculated from rolling resistance (estimated from drag tests) and change in kinetic energy (estimated using wheelchair velocity and wheelchair acceleration). The results reveal no significant difference between reference power values and the proposed IMU-based power (1.8% mean difference, N.S.). As the estimated rolling resistance shows a 0.9-1.7% underestimation, over time, IMU-based power will be slightly underestimated as well. To conclude, the theoretical framework and the resulting IMU model seems to provide acceptable estimates of mechanical power during straight-line wheelchair propulsion in wheelchair (sports) practice, and it is an important first step towards feasible power estimations in all wheelchair sports situations.

The Push Forward in Rehabilitation: Validation of a Machine Learning Method for Detection of Wheelchair Propulsion Type.

Within rehabilitation, there is a great need for a simple method to monitor wheelchair use, especially whether it is active or passive. For this purpose, an existing measurement technique was extended with a method for detecting self- or attendant-pushed wheelchair propulsion. The aim of this study was to validate this new detection method by comparison with manual annotation of wheelchair use. Twenty-four amputation and stroke patients completed a semi-structured course of active and passive wheelchair use. Based on a machine learning approach, a method was developed that detected the type of movement. The machine learning method was trained based on the data of a single-wheel sensor as well as a setup using an additional sensor on the frame. The method showed high accuracy (F1 = 0.886, frame and wheel sensor) even if only a single wheel sensor was used (F1 = 0.827). The developed and validated measurement method is ideally suited to easily determine wheelchair use and the corresponding activity level of patients in rehabilitation.

Trunk motion influences mechanical power estimates during wheelchair propulsion.

In wheelchair sports, there is an increasing need to monitor mechanical power in the field. When rolling resistance is known, inertial measurement units (IMUs) can be used to determine mechanical power. However, upper body (i.e., trunk) motion affects the mass distribution between the small front and large rear wheels, thus affecting rolling resistance. Therefore, drag tests - which are commonly used to estimate rolling resistance - may not be valid. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of trunk motion on mechanical power estimates in hand-rim wheelchair propulsion by comparing instantaneous resistance-based power loss with drag test-based power loss. Experiments were performed with no, moderate and full trunk motion during wheelchair propulsion. During these experiments, power loss was determined based on 1) the instantaneous rolling resistance and 2) based on the rolling resistance determined from drag tests (thus neglecting the effects of trunk motion). Results showed that power loss values of the two methods were similar when no trunk motion was present (mean difference [MD] of 0.6 ± 1.6 %). However, drag test-based power loss was underestimated up to -3.3 ± 2.3 % MD when the extent of trunk motion increased (r = 0.85). To conclude, during wheelchair propulsion with active trunk motion, neglecting the effects of trunk motion leads to an underestimated mechanical power of 1 to 6 % when it is estimated with drag test values. Depending on the required accuracy and the amount of trunk motion in the target group, the influence of trunk motion on power estimates should be corrected for.

Obtaining wheelchair kinematics with one sensor only? The trade-off between number of inertial sensors and accuracy for measuring wheelchair mobility performance in sports.

In wheelchair sports, the use of Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs) has proven to be one of the most accessible ways for ambulatory measurement of wheelchair kinematics. A three-IMU configuration, with one IMU attached to the wheelchair frame and two IMUs on each wheel axle, has previously shown accurate results and is considered optimal for accuracy. Configurations with fewer sensors reduce costs and could enhance usability, but may be less accurate. The aim of this study was to quantify the decline in accuracy for measuring wheelchair kinematics with a stepwise sensor reduction. Ten differently skilled participants performed a series of wheelchair sport specific tests while their performance was simultaneously measured with IMUs and an optical motion capture system which served as reference. Subsequently, both a one-IMU and a two-IMU configuration were validated and the accuracy of the two approaches was compared for linear and angular wheelchair velocity. Results revealed that the one-IMU approach show a mean absolute error (MAE) of 0.10 m/s for absolute linear velocity and a MAE of 8.1°/s for wheelchair angular velocity when compared with the reference system. The two-IMU approach showed similar differences for absolute linear wheelchair velocity (MAE 0.10 m/s), and smaller differences for angular velocity (MAE 3.0°/s). Overall, a lower number of IMUs used in the configuration resulted in a lower accuracy of wheelchair kinematics. Based on the results of this study, choices regarding the number of IMUs can be made depending on the aim, required accuracy and resources available.

Intensity of daily physical activity - a key component for improving physical capacity after minor stroke?

PURPOSE: Elucidating the complex interactions between physical activity (PA), a multidimensional concept, and physical capacity (PC) may reveal ways to improve rehabilitation interventions. This cross-sectional study aimed to explore which PA dimensions are related to PC in people after minor stroke. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Community dwelling individuals >6 months after minor stroke were evaluated with a 10-Meter-Walking-Test (10MWT), Timed-Up & Go, and the Mini Balance Evaluation System Test. The following PA outcomes were measured with an Activ8 accelerometer: counts per minute during walking (CPMwalking; a measure of intensity), number of active bouts (frequency), mean length of active bouts (distribution), and percentage of waking hours in upright positions (duration). Multivariable linear regression models, adjusted for age, sex and BMI, were used to assess the relationships between PC and PA outcomes. RESULTS: Sixty-nine participants [62.2 ± 9.8 years, 61% male, 20 months post onset (IQR 13.0-53.5)] were included in the analysis. CPMwalking was significantly associated to PC in the 10MWT (std. ß = 0.409, p = 0.002), whereas other associations between PA and PC were not significant. CONCLUSIONS: The PA dimension intensity of walking is significantly associated with PC, and appears to be an important tool for future interventions in rehabilitation after minor stroke.Implications for rehabilitationIt is recommended to express physical activity after minor stroke in multiple dimensions such as intensity, frequency, duration and distribution.In particular, intensity of physical activity measured with accelerometer counts is most closely related to physical capacity.The findings of this study underline the importance of being physically active beyond a certain intensity.In future development of interventions and guidelines that aim to promote daily physical activity, intensity should be taken into account.

Physical activity dimensions after stroke: patterns and relation with lower limb motor function.

BACKGROUND: Stroke survivors show deteriorated physical functioning and physical activity levels. Physical activity levels of stroke survivors are generally low. It is increasingly recognized that physical activity is a multidimensional construct that cannot be captured in a single outcome. In-depth insight into multidimensional physical activity patterns may guide the development and timing of targeted rehabilitation interventions. This longitudinal cohort study explored how multidimensional physical activity outcomes develop during recovery in the subacute phase after stroke and if changes in physical activity were correlated to recovery of lower limb motor function. METHODS: Patients were recruited during inpatient rehabilitation. At 3, 12, and 26 weeks post-onset, motor function was measured by the Fugl-Meyer Lower Extremity Assessment (FMA-LE). Physical activity was measured with the Activ8 accelerometer in multiple outcomes: counts per minute during walking (CPMwalking; a measure of Intensity), number of active bouts (Frequency), mean length of active bouts (Distribution) and % of waking time in upright positions (Duration). Generalized estimating equations (GEE) were used to study changes in physical activity over time and the relation with the change in lower limb motor recovery. RESULTS: Thirty-nine patients (age 56 ± 9, 77% male, 89% ischemic stroke) were included. GEE models showed a significant main effect of time for PA Intensity (+ 13%, p = 0.007) and Duration (+ 64%, p = 0.012) between 3 and 12 weeks. Motor function did not show a significant effect in all PA models across the 3 timepoints (p > 0.020). A significant interaction effect of time × motor function was observed (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Patterns of PA recovery depend on the PA dimensions: PA Intensity and Duration increased mostly between 3 and 12 weeks post-stroke, whereas Frequency and Distribution did not show substantial changes. Further, no strong associations with motor recovery and high inter-individual variability were documented, which underlies the need to consider factors specific to the disease, the individual patient and the context.

Machine Learning to Improve Orientation Estimation in Sports Situations Challenging for Inertial Sensor Use.

In sports, inertial measurement units are often used to measure the orientation of human body segments. A Madgwick (MW) filter can be used to obtain accurate inertial measurement unit (IMU) orientation estimates. This filter combines two different orientation estimates by applying a correction of the (1) gyroscope-based estimate in the direction of the (2) earth frame-based estimate. However, in sports situations that are characterized by relatively large linear accelerations and/or close magnetic sources, such as wheelchair sports, obtaining accurate IMU orientation estimates is challenging. In these situations, applying the MW filter in the regular way, i.e., with the same magnitude of correction at all time frames, may lead to estimation errors. Therefore, in this study, the MW filter was extended with machine learning to distinguish instances in which a small correction magnitude is beneficial from instances in which a large correction magnitude is beneficial, to eventually arrive at accurate body segment orientations in IMU-challenging sports situations. A machine learning algorithm was trained to make this distinction based on raw IMU data. Experiments on wheelchair sports were performed to assess the validity of the extended MW filter, and to compare the extended MW filter with the original MW filter based on comparisons with a motion capture-based reference system. Results indicate that the extended MW filter performs better than the original MW filter in assessing instantaneous trunk inclination (7.6 vs. 11.7° root-mean-squared error, RMSE), especially during the dynamic, IMU-challenging situations with moving athlete and wheelchair. Improvements of up to 45% RMSE were obtained for the extended MW filter compared with the original MW filter. To conclude, the machine learning-based extended MW filter has an acceptable accuracy and performs better than the original MW filter for the assessment of body segment orientation in IMU-challenging sports situations.

Wearable Activity Monitoring in Day-to-Day Stroke Care: A Promising Tool but Not Widely Used.

Physical activity monitoring with wearable technology has the potential to support stroke rehabilitation. Little is known about how physical therapists use and value the use of wearable activity monitors. This cross-sectional study explores the use, perspectives, and barriers to wearable activity monitoring in day-to-day stroke care routines amongst physical therapists. Over 300 physical therapists in primary and geriatric care and rehabilitation centers in the Netherlands were invited to fill in an online survey that was developed based on previous studies and interviews with experts. In total, 103 complete surveys were analyzed. Out of the 103 surveys, 27% of the respondents were already using activity monitoring. Of the suggested treatment purposes of activity monitoring, 86% were perceived as useful by more than 55% of the therapists. The most recognized barriers to clinical implementation were lack of skills and knowledge of patients (65%) and not knowing what brand and type of monitor to choose (54%). Of the non-users, 79% were willing to use it in the future. In conclusion, although the concept of remote activity monitoring was perceived as useful, it was not widely adopted by physical therapists involved in stroke care. To date, skills, beliefs, and attitudes of individual therapists determine the current use of wearable technology.

Effect of a comprehensive eRehabilitation intervention alongside conventional stroke rehabilitation on disability and health-related quality of life: A pre-post comparison.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the effect on disability and quality of life, of conventional rehabilitation (control group) with individualized, tailored eRehabilitation intervention alongside conventional rehabilitation (Fast@home; intervention group), for people with stroke. METHODS: Pre-post design. The intervention comprised cognitive (Braingymmer®) and physical (Telerevalidatie®/Physitrack®) exercises, activity-tracking (Activ8®) and psycho-education. Assessments were made at admission (T0) and after 3 (T3) and 6 months (T6). The primary outcome concerned disability (Stroke Impact Scale; SIS). Secondary outcomes were: health-related quality of life, fatigue, self-management, participation and physical activity. Changes in scores between T0-T3, T3-T6, and T0-T6 were compared by analysis of variance and linear mixed models. RESULTS: The study included 153 and 165 people with stroke in the control and intervention groups, respectively. In the intervention group, 82 (50%) people received the intervention, of whom 54 (66%) used it. Between T3 and T6, the change in scores for the SIS subscales Communication (control group/intervention group -1.7/-0.3) and Physical strength (-5.7/3.3) were significantly greater in the total intervention group (all mean differences< minimally clinically important differences). No significant differences were found for other SIS subscales or secondary outcomes, or between T0-T3 and T0-T6. CONCLUSION: eRehabilitation alongside conventional stroke rehabilitation had a small positive effect on communication and physical strength on the longer term, compared to conventional rehabilitation only.

Development of screening methods for functional characterization of UGTs from Stevia rebaudiana.

Glycosylation is a key modification that contributes to determine bioactivity and bioavailability of plant natural products, including that of terpenoids and steviol glycosides (SVglys). It is mediated by uridine-diphosphate glycosyltransferases (UGTs), that achieve their activity by transferring sugars on small molecules. Thus, the diversity of SVglys is due to the number, the position and the nature of glycosylations on the hydroxyl groups in C-13 and C-19 of steviol. Despite the intense sweetener property of SVglys and the numerous studies conducted, the SVglys biosynthetic pathway remains largely unknown. More than 60 SVglys and 68 putative UGTs have been identified in Stevia rebaudiana. This study aims to provide methods to characterize UGTs putatively involved in SVglys biosynthesis. After agroinfiltration-based transient gene expression in Nicotiana benthamiana, functionality of the recombinant UGT can be tested simply and directly in plants expressing it or from a crude extract. The combined use of binary vectors from pGWBs series to produce expression vectors containing the stevia's UGT, enables functionality testing with many substrates as well as other applications for further analysis, including subcellular localization.

Wearable Wheelchair Mobility Performance Measurement in Basketball, Rugby, and Tennis: Lessons for Classification and Training.

Athlete impairment level is an important factor in wheelchair mobility performance (WMP) in sports. Classification systems, aimed to compensate impairment level effects on performance, vary between sports. Improved understanding of resemblances and differences in WMP between sports could aid in optimizing the classification methodology. Furthermore, increased performance insight could be applied in training and wheelchair optimization. The wearable sensor-based wheelchair mobility performance monitor (WMPM) was used to measure WMP of wheelchair basketball, rugby and tennis athletes of (inter-)national level during match-play. As hypothesized, wheelchair basketball athletes show the highest average WMP levels and wheelchair rugby the lowest, whereas wheelchair tennis athletes range in between for most outcomes. Based on WMP profiles, wheelchair basketball requires the highest performance intensity, whereas in wheelchair tennis, maneuverability is the key performance factor. In wheelchair rugby, WMP levels show the highest variation comparable to the high variation in athletes' impairment levels. These insights could be used to direct classification and training guidelines, with more emphasis on intensity for wheelchair basketball, focus on maneuverability for wheelchair tennis and impairment-level based training programs for wheelchair rugby. Wearable technology use seems a prerequisite for further development of wheelchair sports, on the sports level (classification) and on individual level (training and wheelchair configuration).

Effectiveness of healthcare interventions using objective feedback on physical activity: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the effectiveness of health-care interventions promoting physical activity, which use objective feedback on physical activity delivered using wearable activity monitors as part of the intervention. Intervention groups are compared with control groups receiving usual care or interventions without objective feedback. DATA SOURCES: PubMed, EMBASE, MEDLINE and Cochrane Library were searched to identify randomized controlled trials. STUDY SELECTION: Randomized controlled trials published after 2007 with (former) healthcare patients ≥ 21 years of age were included if physical activity was measured objectively using a wearable monitor for both feedback and outcome assessment. The main goal of included studies was promoting physical activity. Any concurrent strategies were related only to promoting physical activity. DATA EXTRACTION: Effect sizes were calculated using a fixed-effects model with standardized mean difference. Information on study characteristics and interventions strategies were extracted from study descriptions. DATA SYNTHESIS: Fourteen studies met the inclusion criteria (total n = 1,902), and 2 studies were excluded from meta-analysis. The overall effect size was in favour of the intervention groups (0.34, 95% CI 0.23-0.44, p < 0.01). Study characteristics and intervention strategies varied widely. CONCLUSION: Healthcare interventions using feedback on objectively monitored physical activity have a moderately positive effect on levels of physical activity. Further research is needed to determine which strategies are most effective to promote physical activity in healthcare programmes.

Improving Mobility Performance in Wheelchair Basketball.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to investigate which characteristics of athlete, wheelchair and athlete-wheelchair interface are the best predictors of wheelchair basketball mobility performance. DESIGN: A total of 60 experienced wheelchair basketball players performed a wheelchair mobility performance test to assess their mobility performance. To determine which variables were the best predictors of mobility performance, forward stepwise linear regression analyses were performed on a set of 33 characteristics, including 10 athlete, 19 wheelchair, and 4 athlete-wheelchair interface characteristics. RESULTS: A total of 8 of the characteristics turned out to be significant predictors of wheelchair basketball mobility performance. Classification, experience, maximal isometric force, wheel axis height, and hand rim diameter-which both are interchangeable with each other and wheel diameter-camber angle, and the vertical distance between shoulder and rear wheel axis-which was interchangeable with seat height-were positively associated with mobility performance. The vertical distance between the front seat and the footrest was negatively associated with mobility performance. CONCLUSION: With this insight, coaches and biomechanical specialists are provided with statistical findings to determine which characteristics they could focus on best to improve mobility performance. Six out of 8 predictors are modifiable and can be optimized to improve mobility performance. These adjustments could be carried out both in training (maximal isometric force) and in wheelchair configurations (eg, camber angle).

UGT76G1 polymorphism in Stevia rebaudiana: New variants for steviol glycosides conjugation.

Steviol glycosides (SVglys) are secondary metabolites derived from terpenoids exhibiting high-sweetening properties produced in Stevia rebaudiana leaves. Their great diversity is due to the number, the position and the nature of glycosylations on the steviol aglycone. Steviol conjugation is mediated by uridine-diphosphate glycosyltransferases (UGTs). Four UGTs have been clearly identified as involved in SVglys metabolism: UGT74G1, UGT85C2, UGT76G1 and UGT73E1. Natural non-functional mutants with nonsense codon have yet been observed for UGT76G1. To investigate the variability of UGT76G1 functionality, natural mutants with low or no content of rebaudioside A and C were identified in a germplasm collection of Stevia rebaudiana. These compounds are known to be the direct products of UGT76G1 and their biosynthesis is governed by a single gene at the locus Rae (Rebaudioside A enablement). Crosses were done with remarkable accessions including phenotypes with low (0-3%) and high proportions (70%) of rebaudioside A and C, to investigate the functionality of the Rae locus in the parents. Seven variants of UGT76G1 were found, among them 4 lead to a functional protein and 3 lead to non-functional isoforms. Five of these variants are new. We found that non-functionality of UGT76G1 towards SVglys is not due to a premature nonsense codon, which appears to be an extreme case to explain the loss of functionality of an UGT. Variations in steviol glycoside profile in stevia leaves is partly due to UGT76G1 polymorphism: amino acid substitutions in parts of the protein involved in the substrate specificity can be found by sequence comparison.

Sensitivity to change of the field-based Wheelchair Mobility Performance Test in wheelchair basketball.

OBJECTIVE: The Wheelchair Mobility Performance (WMP) test is a reliable and valid measure to assess mobility performance in wheelchair basketball. The aim of this study was to examine the sensitivity to change of the WMP test by manipulating wheelchair configurations. METHODS: Sixteen wheelchair basketball players performed the WMP test 3 times in their own wheelchair: (i) without adjustments ("control condition"); (ii) with 10 kg additional mass ("weighted condition"); and (iii) with 50% reduced tyre pressure ("tyre condition"). The outcome measure was time (s). If paired t-tests were significant (p <0.05) and differences between conditions were larger than the standard error of measurement, the effect sizes (ES) were used to evaluate the sensitivity to change. ES values ≥0.2 were regarded as sensitive to change. RESULTS: The overall performance times for the manipulations were significantly higher than the control condition, with mean differences of 4.40 s (weight - control, ES = 0.44) and 2.81 s (tyre - control, ES = 0.27). The overall performance time on the WMP test was judged as sensitive to change. For 8 of the 15 separate tasks on the WMP test, the tasks were judged as sensitive to change for at least one of the manipulations. CONCLUSION: The WMP test can detect change in mobility performance when wheelchair configurations are manipulated.

Neurological outcome in children and youth with acquired brain injury 2-year post-injury.

OBJECTIVE: To determine neurological outcome in children and youth with acquired brain injury (ABI) and explore associated factors. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study, two-years post-injury. PATIENTS: Hospital-based sample (n=112) aged 6-22 years. METHODS: Neurological outcome and participation were assessed with a multidimensional neurological examination and the Child and Adolescent Scale of Participation. Logistic regression analyses were used to explore the relationships. RESULTS: Both sensorimotor and cognitive deficits were found in 30-31%, language deficits and behavioural deficits in 10-17%. Non-traumatic injury had a negative impact on neurological outcome, specifically regarding sensorimotor and language deficits. Lower education level showed a significantly poorer neurological outcome. High levels of age-expected participation were reported, with a significant relation between deficits and participation restrictions, especially at school. CONCLUSION: One out of three have a poor neurological outcome, related to type of injury and lower level of education. The amount of deficits is associated with participation restrictions.

Wheelchair Mobility Performance Enhancement by Changing Wheelchair Properties: What Is the Effect of Grip, Seat Height, and Mass?

PURPOSE: To provide insight on the effect of wheelchair settings on wheelchair mobility performance (WMP). METHODS: Twenty elite wheelchair basketball athletes of low (n = 10) and high classification (n = 10) were tested in a wheelchair-basketball-directed field test. Athletes performed the test in their own wheelchairs, which were modified for 5 additional conditions regarding seat height (high-low), mass (central-distributed), and grip. The previously developed inertial-sensor-based WMP monitor was used to extract wheelchair kinematics in all conditions. RESULTS: Adding mass showed most effect on WMP, with a reduced average acceleration across all activities. Once distributed, additional mass also reduced maximal rotational speed and rotational acceleration. Elevating seat height had an effect on several performance aspects in sprinting and turning, whereas lowering seat height influenced performance minimally. Increased rim grip did not alter performance. No differences in response were evident between low- and high-classified athletes. CONCLUSIONS: The WMP monitor showed sensitivity to detect performance differences due to the small changes in wheelchair configuration. Distributed additional mass had the most effect on WMP, whereas additional grip had the least effect of conditions tested. Performance effects appear similar for both low- and high-classified athletes. Athletes, coaches, and wheelchair experts are provided with insight into the performance effect of key wheelchair settings, and they are offered a proven sensitive method to apply in sport practice, in their search for the best wheelchair-athlete combination.

Development, construct validity and test-retest reliability of a field-based wheelchair mobility performance test for wheelchair basketball.

The aim of this study was to develop and describe a wheelchair mobility performance test in wheelchair basketball and to assess its construct validity and reliability. To mimic mobility performance of wheelchair basketball matches in a standardised manner, a test was designed based on observation of wheelchair basketball matches and expert judgement. Forty-six players performed the test to determine its validity and 23 players performed the test twice for reliability. Independent-samples t-tests were used to assess whether the times needed to complete the test were different for classifications, playing standards and sex. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) were calculated to quantify reliability of performance times. Males performed better than females (P < 0.001, effect size [ES] = -1.26) and international men performed better than national men (P < 0.001, ES = -1.62). Performance time of low (≤2.5) and high (≥3.0) classification players was borderline not significant with a moderate ES (P = 0.06, ES = 0.58). The reliability was excellent for overall performance time (ICC = 0.95). These results show that the test can be used as a standardised mobility performance test to validly and reliably assess the capacity in mobility performance of elite wheelchair basketball athletes. Furthermore, the described methodology of development is recommended for use in other sports to develop sport-specific tests.

The Future of Classification in Wheelchair Sports: Can Data Science and Technological Advancement Offer an Alternative Point of View?

PURPOSE: Classification is a defining factor for competition in wheelchair sports, but it is a delicate and time-consuming process with often questionable validity. New inertial sensor-based measurement methods applied in match play and field tests allow for more precise and objective estimates of the impairment effect on wheelchair-mobility performance. The aim of the present research was to evaluate whether these measures could offer an alternative point of view for classification. METHODS: Six standard wheelchair-mobility performance outcomes of different classification groups were measured in match play (n = 29), as well as best possible performance in a field test (n = 47). RESULTS: In match results, a clear relationship between classification and performance level is shown, with increased performance outcomes in each adjacent higher-classification group. Three outcomes differed significantly between the low- and mid-classified groups, and 1, between the mid- and high-classified groups. In best performance (field test), there was a split between the low- and mid-classified groups (5 out of 6 outcomes differed significantly) but hardly any difference between the mid- and high-classified groups. This observed split was confirmed by cluster analysis, revealing the existence of only 2 performance-based clusters. CONCLUSIONS: The use of inertial sensor technology to obtain objective measures of wheelchair-mobility performance, combined with a standardized field test, produced alternative views for evidence-based classification. The results of this approach provide arguments for a reduced number of classes in wheelchair basketball. Future use of inertial sensors in match play and field testing could enhance evaluation of classification guidelines, as well as individual athlete performance.