Reliability of a computerized version of the Pediatric Canadian Triage and Acuity Scale.

BACKGROUND: The use of a standardized triage tool allows better comparison of the patients; a computerized version could theoretically improve its reliability. OBJECTIVES: To compare the interrater agreement of the Pediatric Canadian Triage and Acuity Scale (PedCTAS) and a computerized version (Staturg). METHODS: A two-phase experimental study was conducted to compare the interrater agreement between nurses assigning triage level to written case scenarios using either traditional PedCTAS or Staturg. Participants were nurses with at least one year of experience in pediatric emergency medicine and trained at triage. Each of the 54 scenarios was evaluated first by all nurses using either one of the strategies. Four weeks later, they evaluated the same scenarios using the other tool. The primary outcome was the interrater agreement measured using kappa score. RESULTS: Eighteen of the 29 eligible nurses participated in the study. The computerized triage tool showed a better interrater agreement, with a Staturg kappa score of 0.55 (95% confidence interval = 0.53 to 0.57) versus a PedCTAS kappa score of 0.51 (95% confidence interval = 0.49 to 0.53). The computerized version was also associated with higher agreements for scenarios describing patients with the highest severity of triage (kappa score of 0.72 vs. 0.55 for level 1; kappa score of 0.70 vs. 0.51 for level 2). CONCLUSIONS: A computerized version of the PedCTAS showed a statistically significant improvement in the interrater agreement for nurses evaluating the triage level of 54 clinical scenarios, but this difference has probably small clinical significance.

Efficacy and impact of intravenous morphine before surgical consultation in children with right lower quadrant pain suggestive of appendicitis: a randomized controlled trial.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: The evidence supporting the use of analgesia in children with abdominal pain suggestive of appendicitis is limited. The objectives of the study are to evaluate the efficacy of morphine before surgical consultation in children presenting to the pediatric emergency department (ED) with right lower quadrant pain suggestive of appendicitis and determine whether it has an impact on the time between arrival in the ED and the surgical decision. METHODS: All children between the ages of 8 and 18 years who presented to a pediatric ED with a presumptive diagnosis of appendicitis were eligible to be enrolled in a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial if the initial pain was at least 5 of 10 on a verbal numeric scale. Patients received either 0.1 mg/kg of intravenous morphine (maximum 5 mg) or placebo. The primary outcomes were (1) the difference in pain using a visual analog scale at baseline and 30 minutes after the completion of the intervention, analyzed by comparing the mean pain differences for the treatment versus placebo groups; and (2) the time between arrival in the ED and the surgical decision, analyzed by comparing the median delay for the 2 groups. RESULTS: Ninety patients with a suspected diagnosis of appendicitis were randomized to receive morphine or placebo. Both groups were similar in terms of demographics, medical history, physical findings, emergency physician assessment of the probability of appendicitis, and initial pain score. There was no important difference in the decrease of pain between the morphine (n=45) and placebo (n=42) groups 30 minutes after the intervention: 24+/-23 mm and 20+/-18 mm, respectively (delta 4 mm [95% confidence interval [CI] -5 to 12 mm]). There was also no important difference in the time between arrival in the ED and the surgical decision: median 269 minutes (95% CI 240 to 355 minutes) for morphine and 307 minutes (95% CI 239 to 415 minutes) for placebo (delta -34 minutes [95% CI -105 to 40 minutes]). CONCLUSION: The use of morphine in children with a presumptive diagnosis of appendicitis did not delay the surgical decision. In our group of patients, however, morphine at a dose of 0.1 mg/kg was not more effective than placebo in diminishing their pain at 30 minutes.

Comparison of four pain scales in children with acute abdominal pain in a pediatric emergency department.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: In children, the agreement between the many scales used to document the intensity of pain is not well known. Thus, to determine the agreement, we evaluate the visual analog scale, the standardized color analog scale, the Wong-Baker FACES Pain Rating Scale, and a verbal numeric scale in children with acute abdominal pain suggestive of appendicitis in a pediatric emergency department (ED). METHODS: Participants were children who were aged 8 to 18 years, presented to a pediatric ED with abdominal pain suggestive of appendicitis, and were recruited to participate in a randomized controlled trial evaluating the efficacy of morphine. Patients were initially asked to grade their pain on a plasticized color analog scale, a paper visual analog scale, a paper Wong-Baker FACES Pain Rating Scale, and then with a verbal numeric scale. Thirty minutes after morphine or placebo administration, the assessment was repeated. All scores were then converted to a value of 0 to 100. Agreements between scores were evaluated with the Bland-Altman method, and the 95% lower and upper limits were reported. We defined a priori the maximum limit of agreement at +/-20 mm. RESULTS: A total of 87 children were included in the study, 58 of them with confirmed appendicitis. The 95% limits of agreement for each pair of scales were visual analog scale/color analog scale -18.6, 14.4; visual analog scale/Wong-Baker FACES Pain Rating Scale -20.1, 33.7; visual analog scale/verbal numeric scale -30.2, 20.7; color analog scale/Wong-Baker FACES Pain Rating Scale -18.5, 36.3; color analog scale/verbal numeric scale -26.9, 22.1; and Wong-Baker FACES Pain Rating Scale/verbal numeric scale -38.7, 15.7. CONCLUSION: Our study suggests that only the visual analog scale and the color analog scale have acceptable agreement in children with moderate to severe acute abdominal pain. In particular, the verbal numeric scale is not in agreement with the other evaluated scales.

The effect of Picture Archiving and Communications Systems on the accuracy of diagnostic interpretation of pediatric emergency physicians.

OBJECTIVES: To compare the accuracy of diagnostic interpretation of radiographs by pediatric emergency physicians (EPs) before and after the introduction of a Picture Archiving and Communications System (PACS). METHODS: The pre-PACS study period included results from September 2001, when patients were evaluated by using only conventional radiographs. The post-PACS study period consisted of results from September 2002, when patients were evaluated by using only digital radiographic studies. During these periods, consecutive medical records of all patients who underwent radiological studies when attending the pediatric emergency department (ED) were reviewed. The radiographic interpretation by the pediatric EP, documented at the time of the ED visit, was compared with that made by the pediatric radiologist. RESULTS: Data were available from 1,644/1,651 sets of conventional radiographs ordered for the pre-PACS study period and from 1,430/1,431 sets of digital radiographic studies for the post-PACS study period. The prevalence of positive radiological studies as per the radiologists was 32.2% (pre-PACS study period) vs. 28.7% (post-PACS study period). Diagnostic performance of the pediatric EPs for the two time periods was as follows: overall accuracy, 98.1% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 94.5% to 100%) vs. 98.5% (95% CI = 87.5% to 100%); sensitivity, 96.4% (95% CI = 94.5% to 97.8%) vs. 98.1% (95% CI = 96.2% to 99.2%); specificity, 98.9% (95% CI = 98.1% to 99.4%) vs. 98.6% (95% CI = 97.7% to 99.3%); negative predictive value, 98.3% (95% CI = 97.4% to 99.0%) vs. 99.2% (95% CI = 98.5% to 99.7%); and positive predictive value, 97.7% (95% CI = 96.0% to 98.8%) vs. 96.6% (95% CI = 94.4% to 98.2%). The proportion of false negatives (FN) was 1.2% (19/1,644) vs. 0.6% (8/1,430). Only one FN patient for each time period required immediate follow-up for a missed diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS: Radiograph interpretations by pediatric EPs with digital studies remain as accurate in comparison with assessments performed by using conventional radiographs.

Evaluation of the Paediatric Canadian Triage and Acuity Scale in a pediatric ED.

The aim of this study was to compare the performance of the Paediatric Canadian Triage and Acuity Scale (Paed CTAS) to a previous triage tool with respect to the percentage of admissions, the diagnostic and therapeutic interventions, and the mean pediatric risk of admission (PRISA) score in a pediatric tertiary center emergency department. Data were prospectively collected for 4 months before the Paed CTAS introduction (PRE group) and for 4 months after its implementation (Paed CTAS group). Both groups were similar in chief complaints, distribution of triage levels, and mean PRISA score. In the Paed CTAS group, more patients were triaged in the higher acuity levels (53% vs 36%, P < .05), but the percentage of admission for these patients was comparatively lower (13% vs 27%, P<.05). The ability to predict admission was greater for the PRE tool as compared to the Paed CTAS tool (AUC: 0.82 vs 0.69, P=.001). The ability to predict requirements for interventions such as blood culture and intravenous fluid bolus was similar for both triage tools.

Treatment of urinary tract infections among febrile young children with daily intravenous antibiotic therapy at a day treatment center.

OBJECTIVE: Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are common among infants and toddlers. Children can be treated effectively with short courses (2-4 days) of intravenous (IV) therapy followed by oral therapy. If IV therapy is chosen, use of once-daily dosing may allow outpatient management instead of hospital admission. However, no description of ambulatory treatment with IV antibiotics of UTI among febrile children has been reported to date. We aimed to describe the feasibility and complications of outpatient management with IV antibiotics of UTI among febrile children, at the day treatment center (DTC) of a tertiary-care pediatric hospital. METHODS: Between April 1, 2002, and March 31, 2003, a prospective cohort of patients 3 months to 5 years of age who were examined in the emergency department (ED) and diagnosed as having presumed febrile UTI were treated according to a clinical protocol. Patients were treated at the DTC unless they met exclusion criteria, in which case they were hospitalized. The DTC was open 7 days per week, including holidays, from 8:30 am to 4:30 pm. At the DTC, patients were initially treated with a daily dose of IV gentamicin, until the child had been afebrile for at least 24 hours, and with oral amoxicillin, until preliminary urine culture results were available. Children allergic to penicillin received gentamicin only. IV antibiotics were administered through peripheral IV access; the IV catheter's patency was maintained with injection of 50 U of heparin once daily throughout the treatment period. Parental satisfaction with the DTC experience was assessed with an anonymous, self-administered questionnaire. RESULTS: Two hundred ninety-one episodes of presumed febrile UTI were diagnosed in the ED, of which 212 (72.9%) were sent to the DTC. There were 71 hospital admissions (24.4%); in 9 of these instances, the child was admitted because parents refused or were unable to comply with DTC treatment. Adherence to the treatment protocol in the ED was excellent; in 92.1% of presumed febrile UTI episodes (268 of 291 episodes), the patient was referred to the appropriate setting for treatment. In 8 instances, patients who met an exclusion criterion were sent to the DTC. They should have been hospitalized, according to the protocol. At the DTC, a final diagnosis of UTI was made in 178 of the 212 episodes (84%). Patients treated at the DTC, with a final diagnosis of UTI, had a median age of 12.0 months (range: 3-68 months), and their mean initial temperature was 39.2 degrees C (SD: 1.1 degrees C). Patients were afebrile by 24 hours in 52% of UTI episodes and by 48 hours in 82%. Minor problems with IV access occurred in 9.0% of cases. The duration of IV antibiotic therapy at the DTC was 1.9 days (SD: 0.9 day). The mean number of visits to the DTC, including appointments for renal ultrasound and voiding cystourethrography evaluations, was 3.5 (SD: 0.9). Parents were present at all scheduled visits in 98.9% of cases. Four patients needed to be hospitalized from the DTC, but in only 1 case was hospital admission related to UTI treatment. Four patients with UTI treated in the DTC had positive blood cultures, 2 with Escherichia coli (both successfully treated at the DTC) and 2 with contaminants. For 4 children treated at the DTC, UTI was caused by gentamicin-resistant E coli. One patient became afebrile within 24 hours after treatment initiation with IV gentamicin; he was then treated with oral cefixime. A second patient was treated with IV ceftriaxone, administered at the DTC once culture results were available, and remained febrile for <72 hours. The last 2 patients were hospitalized; one, who was also allergic to cephalosporins, had been febrile for 72 hours at the time of hospitalization (once hospitalized, he was treated with IV amikacin), and the other was admitted to the hospital for an unrelated problem, namely, scalp cellulitis. None of these 4 patients was initially bacteremic or became bacteremic during the treatment period. Repeat urine culture was performed within 14 days after treatment initiation in 146 instances, and results were negative in all cases. At telephone follow-up assessments 14 days after discharge, no patient had been rehospitalized because of UTI. Successful treatment at the DTC (defined as attendance at all visits, normalization of temperature within 96 hours, negative control urine cultures, if performed, and absence of hospitalization from the DTC) was observed in 96.6% of the 178 UTI episodes. Overall adherence of physicians to the protocol at the DTC was 87.1% (95% confidence interval: 82.2-92.0%). One hundred seventy-two satisfaction questionnaires were returned and revealed good, very good, or excellent parental satisfaction in 98.8% of cases. CONCLUSIONS: Our data show that ambulatory treatment with IV antibiotics, at a DTC, may be used for at least three-fourths of UTIs among febrile children 3 months to 5 years of age. It is safe and feasible and appears very satisfactory to parents. Although ambulatory treatment with IV antibiotics is more invasive than oral therapy during the initiation of UTI treatment, it ensures almost full compliance, allows close medical supervision, and facilitates investigations related to the UTI. It is an interesting alternative to hospitalization.

Agreement among pediatric health care professionals with the pediatric Canadian triage and acuity scale guidelines.

OBJECTIVES: To compare triage level assignment, using case scenarios, in a pediatric emergency department between registered nurses (RNs) and pediatric emergency physicians (PEPs) based on the Pediatric Canadian Triage and Acuity Scale (P-CTAS) guidelines. To compare triage level assignment of the RNs and PEPs to that done by a panel of experts using the same P-CTAS guidelines. METHODS: A cross-sectional questionnaire survey (55 case scenarios) was sent to all RNs and PEPs working in the emergency department after the P-CTAS was implemented. Participants were instructed to assign a triage level for each case. A priori, all cases were assigned a triage level by a panel of experts using the P-CTAS guidelines. Kappa statistics and the mean number (+/-1SD) of correct responses were calculated. RESULTS: A response rate of 85% was achieved (29 RNs, 15 PEPs). The kappa level of agreement (95% CI) among RNs was 0.51 (0.50-0.52) and was 0.39 (0.38-0.41) among PEPs (P < 0.001). The mean number of correct responses (+/-1SD) for RNs was 64% +/- 27% and for PEPs 60% +/- 22% (P = 0.31). Levels of agreement did not vary according to experience or type of shift work done or work status of RNs and PEPs. CONCLUSIONS: With the introduction of the P-CTAS, the level of agreement and accuracy of triage categorization remained moderate for both RNs and PEPs. The reliability of the P-CTAS needs to be further assessed and the requirements for revisions considered prior to its widespread use.

Evaluation of the pediatric risk of admission score in a pediatric emergency department.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: The pediatric risk of admission (PRISA) score was developed to predict the risk for hospitalization for pediatric emergency department patients. We sought to evaluate prospectively the predictive value of the PRISA score with respect to the risk for hospitalization in a pediatric ED. METHODS: A prospective cohort study was conducted in a pediatric tertiary center ED. From November 1, 2000, to October 31, 2001, 3 periods of 8 hours each were randomly chosen monthly. During these periods, all patients triaged to the ED were evaluated. Data collection was performed by an investigator uninvolved in the patients' treatment. Data were recorded before the decision regarding hospitalization was made. Odds ratios for the risk of hospitalization related to individual criteria and PRISA scores were calculated. Discrimination and calibration of the score were assessed. RESULTS: During the study periods, 1,930 patients were evaluated. Among these, 203 hospitalizations were observed, and the PRISA score predicted 235. The goodness-of-fit test demonstrated that the score had good predictive ability (chi(2)=28.15; P =.78). Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis confirmed the latter findings (area under the curve 0.79 [95% confidence interval 0.72 to 0.86]). Some individual criteria of the score did not significantly predict risk for admission. CONCLUSION: The PRISA score is a good predictor of the risk for hospitalization in a pediatric ED. It seems more accurate for the sicker patients. Some variables of the score could be deleted or modified to optimize its accuracy.

Comparison of triage assessments among pediatric registered nurses and pediatric emergency physicians.

OBJECTIVES: To compare triage level assignments, using simulated written case scenarios, in a pediatric emergency department (ED) among registered nurses (RNs) and pediatric emergency physicians (PEPs) and to compare the triage level assignments among RNs and PEPs with a consensus criterion standard. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional mailed questionnaire survey. The study was conducted at a pediatric tertiary care center with more than 65,000 annual patient visits. Participants were PEPs and RNs working in the ED. Dillman's Total Design Method, with three mailouts, was used for questionnaire construction and implementation. The survey included 55 case scenarios of patients presenting to the ED. Participants were instructed to assign triage level on each case, using the following four-level triage scale: 1 = resuscitation/emergent, 2 = urgent, 3 = less-urgent, and 4 = non-urgent. A priori, all cases were assigned a triage level by consensus agreement of three PEPs, using established triage guidelines from the RNs' teaching manual. Kappa statistics (95% CI) and the mean percentage of correct responses (+/-1 SD) were calculated. RESULTS: There was a 100% response rate (39 RNs, 24 PEPs). The kappa level of agreement (95% CI) was 0.453 (0.447 to 0.459) among the RNs and was 0.419 (0.409 to 0.429) among the PEPs. The mean percentage of correct responses (+/-1 SD) for the RNs was 64.2% (+/-8.0%) and for the PEPs was 53.5% (+/-8.1%, p < 0.01). There was no significant difference within groups by experience level (< 10 vs. > or =10 years) or by the type of work schedule (day vs. evening vs. overnight) or full-time vs. part-time status. CONCLUSIONS: The level of agreement and accuracy of triage assignment was only moderate for both RNs and PEPs. Triage, a crucial step in emergency care, requires improved measurement.

Comparison of Two Methods for Judging Distances Near Overhead Power Lines.

Sixteen certified crane operators performed several series of boom movements toward a segment of a typical power line using a 100-ton lifting capacity crane equipped with an 18-m boom, a single lifting cable, and a hard ball hook. The operators were instructed to stop the crane movement when the lifting cable reached the edge of the danger zone located 3 m from the power line. To achieve each maneuver, they evaluated the distance between the nearest wire and their crane using two methods: free sighting and the use of highly visible markers delineating the edge of the danger zone. The dependent measure was the distance between the lifting cable and the edge of the danger zone. Results showed that operators were generally unreliable when judging the distance between their crane and the power line when sighting the power line directly, but the use of markers proved to be much more precise and reliable in targeting the edge of the danger zone.