Acute Ca(2+)-dependent desensitization of 5-HT(1A) receptors is mediated by activation of protein kinase A (PKA) in rat serotonergic neurons.

This report investigates acute changes in the sensitivity of 5-HT(1A) receptors in dorsal raphe (dr) neurons in response to elevated serotonin. DR neurons were isolated from adult rats and measurements of inhibition of Ca(2+) current by 5-HT were obtained using the whole cell patch clamp technique. During a 10-min application of 5-HT (with normal [Ca(2+)](i) approximately 100 nM) a desensitization occurred. The response to 20 nM 5-HT decreased by 66% relative to control and remained depressed for about 30 min. When the internal [Ca(2+)] was buffered to <1 nM only a weak transient desensitization occurred that was surmountable with higher [5-HT]. Adenylyl cyclase activation with forskolin mimicked the desensitization and selective inhibition of protein kinase A (PKA), but not protein kinase C (PKC), partially antagonized the desensitization induced by 5-HT. To measure the activity of PKA and phosphatase enzymes, dr slices were incubated with the selective agonist dipropyl-5-carboxamidotryptamine (DP-5-CT, 1 microM) for 10 min and the phosphorylation of the PKA substrate Kemptide was followed using ATP-gamma(32)P. DP-5-CT inhibited the cAMP stimulated maximal activity of PKA but raised basal PKA activity, thus increasing the percentage of PKA in the active state (activity ratio), an effect that was prevented by the selective 5-HT(1A) antagonist WAY100635. DP-5-CT also caused a significant inhibition of phosphatase activity. These data support a model in the dr where 5-HT(1A)-receptor stimulation of PKA promotes phosphorylation of a target and phosphatase inhibition leading to heterologous desensitization. The effect would be expected to have physiological consequences for 5-HT-mediated inhibitory post synaptic potentials and the Ca(2+) component of the action potentials of dr neurons.

Chronic and cyclical neuronal loss in hippocampal slice cultures following transient inhibition of the type 1 isoform of superoxide dismutase.

Increased oxidative stress contributes to chronic neurodegenerative diseases, yet the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Hippocampal slice cultures prepared from 20-30-day-old mice or rats were used to model chronic neuronal loss following oxidative stress. Neuronal loss was initiated by inhibition of the antioxidant enzyme, superoxide dismutase type 1 (SOD1), using the copper chelator diethyldithiocarbamate (DDC). Continuous DDC treatment of slice cultures induced delayed neuronal loss beginning at 9 days of treatment that lasted for over 4 weeks. Neuronal loss was not uniform, rather it was cyclic: peaking at days 9-13 and at days 19-21 after DDC exposure. Neuronal loss was significantly attenuated in slice cultures that overexpress SOD1, suggesting that SOD1 inhibition was responsible. Inhibitors of nitric oxide synthase also attenuated DDC-induced neuronal loss. Chronic neuronal loss, however, did not require continuous SOD1 inhibition. Application of DDC for 13 days resulted in loss of SOD1 activity. Removal of DDC restored SOD1 activity, yet the cycles of cell loss continued until no neurons remained. Astrocyte activation was observed following the second peak of neuronal loss. Media conditioned by cultures following DDC removal induced neuronal loss and microglial activation in recipient cultures. These data suggest that slice cultures released soluble neurotoxic factor(s) following DDC removal. These data also suggest that a transient reduction of SOD1 activity leads to chronic loss of hippocampal neurons. This neuronal loss may be mediated by soluble neurotoxic factor(s) and microglial activation. Cyclical neuronal loss may also underlie chronic neurodegeneration in vivo.

Synaptic depression and neuronal loss in transiently acidic hippocampal slice cultures.

Acidosis is a rapid and inevitable event accompanying cerebral ischemia or trauma. We used hippocampal slice cultures to examine an immediate effect of acidosis, synaptic depression; and a delayed effect, neuronal loss. Exposure to low bicarbonate artificial cerebral spinal fluid (aCSF), pH 6.70 for 30 min at 32 degrees C, acidified intracellular pH from 7.31+/-0.12 to 6.53+/-0.08. Accompanying intracellular acidosis was a depression of synaptic responses. Both effects rapidly reversed after treatment with normal aCSF pH 7.35. Death analysis after acidosis treatment revealed no delayed neuronal loss. Increasing the duration of the acidosis to 60 min, however, induced irreversible synaptic depression and delayed neuronal loss. Increasing acidosis temperature to 37 degrees C acidified intracellular pH and depressed synaptic responses. Delayed neuronal loss was also observed. Acidosis using lactate aCSF, pH 6. 70 for 30 min at 32 degrees C acidified intracellular pH from 7. 19+/-0.13 to 6.43+/-0.07 and depressed synaptic responses. After reperfusion with lactate containing aCSF pH 7.35, intracellular pH recovered yet synaptic responses remained depressed and delayed neuronal loss was observed. This suggested that, for a 30-min treatment at 32 degrees C, lactate acidosis was neurotoxic while low bicarbonate acidosis was not. Increasing the duration or temperature of low bicarbonate acidosis induced neuronal loss. These data provide additional evidence that acidosis contributes to the neurotoxicity during stroke and trauma.

Long-term maintenance of mature hippocampal slices in vitro.

Cultures of primary neurons or thin brain slices are typically prepared from immature animals. We introduce a method to prepare hippocampal slice cultures from mature rats aged 20-30 days. Mature slice cultures retain hippocampal cytoarchitecture and synaptic connections up to 3 months in vitro. Spontaneous epileptiform activity is rarely observed suggesting long-term retention of normal neuronal excitability and of excitatory and inhibitory synaptic networks. Picrotoxin, a GABAergic Cl(-) channel antagonist, induced characteristic interictal-like bursts that originated in the CA3 region, but not in the CA1 region. These data suggest that mature slice cultures displayed long-term retention of GABAergic inhibitory synapses that effectively suppressed synchronized burst activity via recurrent excitatory synapses of CA3 pyramidal cells. Mature slice cultures lack the reactive synaptogenesis, spontaneous epileptiform activity, and short life span that limit the use of slice cultures isolated from immature rats. Mature slice cultures are anticipated to be a useful addition for the in vitro study of normal and pathological hippocampal function.

Acidosis induces necrosis and apoptosis of cultured hippocampal neurons.

Acidosis, hypoxia, and hypoglycemia rapidly and transiently appear after reduction of cerebral blood flow. Acidosis also accompanies head trauma and subarachnoid hemorrhage. These insults result in necrotic and apoptotic loss of neurons. We previously demonstrated that transient acidification of intracellular pH from 7.3 to 6.5 induces delayed neuronal loss in cultured hippocampal slices (49). We now report that acidosis induced both necrotic and apoptotic loss of neurons. Necrosis and apoptosis were distinguished temporally and pharmacologically. Necrosis appeared rapidly and was dose dependent with the duration of the acidosis treatment. Apoptosis was delayed with maximal number of apoptotic cells seen with a 30-min acidosis treatment. Apoptotic neuronal loss was accompanied by DNA fragmentation and was blocked by inhibitors of protein and RNA synthesis, ectopic expression of the anti-apoptotic gene bcl-2, or an inhibitor of caspases, proteases known to be activated during apoptosis. Necrotic neuronal loss was unaffected by these treatments. Hypothermia, a treatment known to attenuate neuronal loss following a variety of insults, blocked both acidosis-induced necrosis and apoptosis. These results indicate that acidosis is neurotoxic in vitro and suggest that acidosis contributes to both necrotic and apoptotic neuronal loss in vivo.

Requirement of protein synthesis for group I mGluR-mediated induction of epileptiform discharges.

Picrotoxin (50 microM) elicited rhythmic synchronized bursting in CA3 pyramidal cells in guinea pig hippocampal slices. Addition of the selective group I metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) agonist (S)-3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine (25 microM) elicited an increase in burst frequency. This was soon followed by a slowly progressive increase in burst duration (BD), converting the brief 250-520 ms picrotoxin-induced synchronized bursts into prolonged discharges of 1-5 s in duration. BD was significantly increased within 60 min and reached a maximum after 2-2.5 h of agonist exposure. The protein synthesis inhibitors anisomycin (15 microM) or cycloheximide (25 microM) significantly impeded the mGluR-mediated development of the prolonged bursts; 90-120 min of agonist application failed to elicit the expected burst prolongation. By contrast, the mGluR-mediated enhancement of burst frequency progressed unimpeded. Furthermore, protein synthesis inhibitors had no significant effect on the frequency or duration of fully developed mGluR-induced prolonged discharges. These results suggest that the group I mGluR-mediated prolongation of synchronized bursts has a protein synthesis-dependent mechanism.

A role for mossy fiber activation in the loss of CA3 and hilar neurons induced by transduction of the GluR6 kainate receptor subunit.

Transduction of a viral vector expressing the GluR6 receptor subunit (HSVGluR6) to cultured hippocampal slices resulted in loss of CA3 and hilar neurons. Synaptic activity was required for this neuronal loss. This study investigates which synaptic connections were needed. Slice cultures responded heterogenously to HSVGluR6; cultures originating from the septal hippocampus showed greater neuronal loss than temporal cultures. Septal cultures also exhibited mossy fiber sprouting suggesting that activation of mossy fiber synapses contributed to neuronal loss. This was tested by transection of fiber tracts between the dentate gyrus and CA3 stratum pyramidale. Neuronal loss was blocked in transected cultures even though HSVGluR6-induced epileptiform activity was unaltered. These data suggest a role for mossy fiber activation in selective neuronal loss.

Transient acidosis induces delayed neurotoxicity in cultured hippocampal slices.

It remains unknown if tissue acidosis contributes to neuronal loss during cerebral ischemia. We report that brief intracellular acidification (pH 6.62) results in delayed neuronal loss in cultured hippocampal slices. Cell loss was located primarily in stratum pyramidale and the hilus suggesting that neurons were preferentially damaged. Removal of molecular oxygen greatly attenuated cell loss suggesting that generation of reactive oxygen species may underlie acidosis-induced toxicity. These data suggest that acidosis and incomplete anoxia contributes to the delayed neuronal loss in the ischemic penumbra.

Localized gene transfer into organotypic hippocampal slice cultures and acute hippocampal slices.

Viral vectors derived from herpes simplex virus, type-1 (HSV), can transfer and express genes into fully differentiated, post-mitotic neurons. These vectors also transduce cells effectively in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures. Nanoliter quantities of a virus stock of HSVlac, an HSV vector that directs expression of E. coli beta-galactosidase (beta-gal), were microapplied into stratum pyramidale or stratum granulosum of slice cultures. Twenty-four hours later, a cluster of transduced cells expressing beta-gal was observed at the microapplication site. Gene transfer by microapplication was both effective and rapid. The titer of the HSVlac stocks was determined on NIH3T3 cells. Eighty-three percent of the beta-gal forming units successfully transduced beta-gal after microapplication to slice cultures. beta-Gal expression was detected as rapidly as 4 h after transduction into cultures of fibroblasts or hippocampal slices. The rapid expression of beta-gal by HSVlac allowed efficient transduction of acute hippocampal slices. Many genes have been transduced and expressed using HSV vectors; therefore, this microapplication method can be applied to many neurobiological questions.

Hyperexcitability and cell loss in kainate-treated hippocampal slice cultures.

Loss of hippocampal interneurons has been reported in patients with severe temporal lobe epilepsy and in animals treated with kainate. We investigated the relationship between KA induced epileptiform discharge and loss of interneurons in hippocampal slice cultures. Application of KA (1 microM) produced reversible epileptiform discharge without neurotoxicity. KA (5 microM), in contrast, produced irreversible epileptiform discharge and neurotoxicity, suggesting that the irreversible epileptiform discharge was required for the neuronal loss. Loss of CA3 pyramidal cells and parvalbumin-like immunoreactive (PV-I) interneurons preceded loss of somatostatin-like immunoreactive (SS-I) interneurons suggesting a different time course of KA neurotoxicity in these subpopulations of interneurons.

Transsynaptic neuronal loss induced in hippocampal slice cultures by a herpes simplex virus vector expressing the GluR6 subunit of the kainate receptor.

Patients with severe temporal lobe epilepsy lose neurons within the CA3 and hilar regions of the hippocampus. Loss of CA3 and hilar neurons was also induced by transducing organotypic hippocampal slice cultures with a replication-defective herpes simplex virus (HSV) vector expressing the GluR6 kainate subtype of the glutamate receptor (HSVGluR6). In transduced fibroblasts, HSVGluR6 expressed a M(r) 115,000 protein that reacted with anti-GluR6 serum. After exposure of fibroblast to HSVGluR6, a kainate-dependent toxicity appeared in cells that were previously resistant to kainate. Microapplication of nanoliter amounts of recombinant HSV stocks into organotypic hippocampal slice cultures resulted in localized transduction and gene transfer at the site of microapplication. Microapplication of 100 HSVGluR6 virions into CA3 stratum pyramidale induced a large loss of CA3 pyramidal cells and hilar neurons, despite the small number of transduced neurons. This effect was not seen when 100 virions of HSVGluR6 were microapplied to CA1 stratum pyramidale. Tetrodotoxin or N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonists inhibited the large loss of CA3 and hilar neurons, suggesting that the small cluster of HSVGluR6-transduced cells induced an N-methyl-D-aspartate-dependent transsynaptic loss of non-transduced neurons.

Excitatory and inhibitory pathways modulate kainate excitotoxicity in hippocampal slice cultures.

In organotypic hippocampal slice cultures, kainate (KA) specifically induces cell loss in the CA3 region while N-methyl-D-aspartate induces cell loss in the CA1 region. The sensitivity of slice cultures to KA toxicity appears only after 2 weeks in vitro which parallels the appearance of mossy fibers. KA toxicity is potentiated by co-application with the GABA-A antagonist, picrotoxin. These data suggest that the excitotoxicity of KA in slice cultures is modulated by both excitatory and inhibitory synapses.

A regulatory subunit of the cAMP-dependent protein kinase down-regulated in aplysia sensory neurons during long-term sensitization.

Binding of cAMP by the five neuronal isoforms (N1-5) of the regulatory (R) subunit of the Aplysia cAMP-dependent protein kinase is diminished in sensory neurons stimulated to produce long-term presynaptic facilitation. To determine how the cAMP-binding activity of the R subunits is lost, we isolated cDNAs encoding N4, which is a homolog of mammalian RI. Immunoblots with antisera raised against the R protein overexpressed in E. coli show that the diminished binding activity, which occurs in long-term facilitation, results from coordinate loss of R protein isoforms. No change was detected in the amount of transcripts for R subunits, suggesting that the down-regulation results from enhanced proteolytic turnover.

Cloning and characterization of Ca(2+)-dependent and Ca(2+)-independent PKCs expressed in Aplysia sensory cells.

We isolated cDNA clones from an Aplysia sensory-cell library encoding two isoforms of protein kinase C (PKC). Several isozyme-specific regions are conserved in the Aplysia kinases, notably the variable regions V5 in the Ca(2+)-dependent PKC (Apl I) and V1 in the Ca(2+)-independent PKC (Apl II). Neuronal proteins with the properties expected of these two isoforms can be identified with antibodies raised against peptides synthesized from the amino acid sequences deduced from the clones. Sacktor and Schwartz (1990) measured the proportion of kinase activity that can be translocated to membrane in Aplysia sensory neurons and ganglia by stimuli that produce the presynaptic facilitation underlying behavioral sensitization. Much less Apl I and Apl II are translocated, suggesting that still other isoforms of PKC exist in these cells.

Protein synthesis during acquisition of long-term facilitation is needed for the persistent loss of regulatory subunits of the Aplysia cAMP-dependent protein kinase.

Depending on the number or the length of exposure, application of serotonin can produce either short-term or long-term presynaptic facilitation of Aplysia sensory-to-motor synapses. The cAMP-dependent protein kinase, a heterodimer of two regulatory and two catalytic subunits, has been shown to become stably activated only during long-term facilitation. Both acquisition of long-term facilitation and persistent activation of the kinase is blocked by anisomycin, an effective, reversible, and specific inhibitor of protein synthesis in Aplysia. We report here that 2-hr exposure of pleural sensory cells to serotonin lowers the concentration of regulatory subunits but does not change the concentration of catalytic subunits, as assayed 24 hr later; 5-min exposure to serotonin has no effect on either type of subunit. Increasing intracellular cAMP with a permeable analog of cAMP together with the phosphodiesterase inhibitor isobutyl methylxanthine also decreased regulatory subunits, suggesting that cAMP is the second messenger mediating serotonin action. Anisomycin blocked the loss of regulatory subunits only when applied with serotonin; application after the 2-hr treatment with serotonin had no effect. In the Aplysia accessory radula contractor muscle, prolonged exposure to serotonin or to the peptide transmitter small cardioactive peptide B, both of which produce large increases in intracellular cAMP, does not decrease regulatory subunits. This mechanism of regulating the cAMP-dependent protein kinase therefore may be specific to the nervous system. We conclude that during long-term facilitation, new protein is synthesized in response to the facilitatory stimulus, which changes the ratio of subunits of the cAMP-dependent protein kinase. This alteration in ratio could persistently activate the kinase and produce the persistent phosphorylation seen in long-term facilitated sensory cells.

Two catalytic subunits of cAMP-dependent protein kinase generated by alternative RNA splicing are expressed in Aplysia neurons.

The amino acid sequences of two catalytic (C) subunits of Aplysia cAMP-dependent protein kinase (cAPK) have been deduced from the nucleotide sequences of cDNAs generated from neuronal poly(A)+ RNA. Both subunits contain 352 residues and are identical except for amino acids 142-183, which differ at 10 out of 42 positions. They derive from alternatively spliced transcripts of a single gene (CAPL) containing two mutually exclusive exon cassettes. CAPL transcripts are present in several classes of identified neurons containing transmitter-sensitive adenylate cyclase, including sensory cells, bag cells, and the left pleural giant cell. Combinatorial expression of the various regulatory (R) and C subunits might produce kinase isoforms with distinct roles in neuronal modulation. Alternatively, holoenzymes with overlapping properties together might contribute to the definition of individual cell types and physiological states.

Structure and origins of the HZ2-feline sarcoma virus.

The HZ2-feline sarcoma virus (HZ2-FeSV) is a replication-defective acute transforming feline retrovirus with oncogene homology to Abelson murine leukemia virus (A-MuLV) (P. Besmer, W.D. Hardy,Jr., E. E. Zuckerman, P. J. Bergold, L. Lederman, and H. W. Snyder, Jr. (1983) Nature (London) 303, 825-828). In contrast to A-MuLV which was isolated from a hematopoietic tumor, the HZ2-FeSV derives from a multicentric fibrosarcoma. We have molecularly cloned the HZ2-FeSV provirus from mink HZ2-FeSV nonproducer cells. The molecularly cloned HZ2-FeSV provirus is biologically active upon transfection of NIH 3T3 indicator cells. The genetic structure of the HZ2-FeSV provirus was determined by EM heteroduplex and Southern blot analysis. The HZ2-FeSV has a 6.8 kb-viral genome with the structure: 5' delta gag-abl-delta pol-delta env 3'. The abl insert, which is 1.4 kb, is located 1.9 kb from the 5' end and 3.5 kb from the 3' end of the viral genome. The 5' 1.9 kb in the HZ2-FeSV are colinear with 5' FeLV sequences, and the 3' 3.5 kb are colinear with 3' FeLV sequences, with the exception of a 0.85-kb deletion in the env gene. HZ2-FeSV v-abl and A-MuLV v-abl share 1.2 kb of abl sequences which are known to specify the protein kinase domain of the abl gene product and are necessary for fibroblast transformation in vitro. The DNA from several tumor tissues of cat 3590 from which the HZ2-FeSV was obtained was found to contain several HZ2-FeSV-related proviruses including the HZ2-FeSV. The variant HZ2-FeSVs have indistinguishable 5' gag-abl sequences; however, they differ in 3' sequences which likely do not include any abl sequences. The DNAs from fibrosarcomas obtained by inoculation of kittens with tumor extract were found to contain variant HZ2-FeSV proviruses as well. Taken together these results indicate a role for the HZ2-FeSVs in sarcomagenesis.

Nucleic acid sequence and oncogenic properties of the HZ2 feline sarcoma virus v-abl insert.

Hardy-Zuckerman 2 feline sarcoma virus (HZ2-FeSV), isolated from a multicentric feline fibrosarcoma is a replication-defective acute transforming feline retrovirus which originated by transduction of feline c-abl sequences with feline leukemia virus (FeLV) and is known to encode a 110-kilodalton gag-abl fusion protein with tyrosine-specific protein kinase activity (P. Besmer, W. D. Hardy, E. E. Zuckerman, P. J. Bergold, L. Lederman, and H. W. Snyder, Nature (London) 303:825-828, 1983). The nucleotide sequence of the abl segment in the HZ2-FeSV genome was determined and compared with the murine and human v-abl and c-abl sequences. The predicted transforming protein consists of 344 amino acids (aa) of FeLV gag origin, 439 aa of abl origin, and at least 200 aa of FeLV pol origin (p110gag-abl-pol). The 1,317-base-pair HZ2-FeSV v-abl segment (fv-abl) corresponds to 5' abl sequences which include the region known to specify the protein kinase domain. The 5' 189 base pairs of fv-abl correspond to 5' c-abl sequences not contained in Abelson murine leukemia virus (MuLV) v-abl. The mouse c-abl exon which contains these segments was identified, and its nucleotide sequence was determined. Comparison of the predicted amino acid sequence of fv-abl with those of Abelson MuLV v-abl and c-abl revealed five aa differences. The 5' junction between FeLV and abl was found to involve a preferred region in FeLV gag p30 (P. Besmer, J. E. Murphy, P. C. George, F. H. Qiu, P. J. Bergold, L. Lederman, H. W. Snyder, D. Brodeur, E. E. Zuckerman, and W. D. Hardy, Nature (London) 320:415-421, 1986). A six-base homology exists at the recombination site between the parental FeLV and the c-abl sequences. The 3' junction between fv-abl and FeLV pol predicts an in-frame fusion of fv-abl and FeLV pol. A transformed cell line containing a truncated gag-abl-pol protein, p85, that lacks most of the FeLV pol sequences was obtained by transfection of NIH 3T3 mouse cells. This result implies that the pol sequences of the p110gag-abl-pol protein are dispensable for fibroblast transformation. To assess whether the fv-abl segment specifies the unique biological properties of HZ2-FeSV, we constructed a Moloney MuLV-based version of HZ2-FeSV, Mo-MuLV(fv-abl), in which the fv-abl sequences were contained in a genetic context similar to that in HZ2-FeSV.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)