The Inverse of Exact Renormalization Group Flows as Statistical Inference.

We build on the view of the Exact Renormalization Group (ERG) as an instantiation of Optimal Transport described by a functional convection-diffusion equation. We provide a new information-theoretic perspective for understanding the ERG through the intermediary of Bayesian Statistical Inference. This connection is facilitated by the Dynamical Bayesian Inference scheme, which encodes Bayesian inference in the form of a one-parameter family of probability distributions solving an integro-differential equation derived from Bayes' law. In this note, we demonstrate how the Dynamical Bayesian Inference equation is, itself, equivalent to a diffusion equation, which we dub Bayesian Diffusion. By identifying the features that define Bayesian Diffusion and mapping them onto the features that define the ERG, we obtain a dictionary outlining how renormalization can be understood as the inverse of statistical inference.

A new recumbirostran 'microsaur' from the lower Permian Bromacker locality, Thuringia, Germany, and its fossorial adaptations.

Several recumbirostran 'microsaurs' are known from early Permian sites across Germany, including the Tambach Formation in Thuringia, central Germany. The only 'microsaur' thus far described from the Tambach Formation was the ostodolepid recumbirostran Tambaroter carrolli. However, there is also the documented presence of an undescribed recumbirostran 'microsaur' at the well-known Bromacker locality. The Bromacker locality is highly recognized and best known for its very diverse and extremely well-preserved terrestrial tetrapod assemblage combined with the co-occurrence of an exceptional vertebrate ichnofossil record. Here we describe a second new recumbirostran taxon from the Tambach Formation, which is also the first from the Bromacker locality itself. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that the new taxon, Bromerpeton subcolossus gen. et sp. nov., is a brachystelechid recumbirostran, a group also known elsewhere in Germany. The following features differentiate Bromerpeton from the other members of the clade: the presence of 13 maxillary teeth, narrow postorbitals that do not substantially contribute to the postorbital region of the skull, the frontal does not contribute to the orbital margin, and the presence of five manual digits. This new recumbirostran 'microsaur' further adds to the unique ecosystem that is preserved at the Bromacker locality, granting us a better understanding of what was living underfoot the larger more well-known animals at the locality. Likewise, it expands our understanding of the evolution of recumbirostran 'microsaurs', especially with regards to digit and limb reduction within the clade.

Anatomy of the neural endocranium, parasphenoid and stapes of Diadectes absitus (Diadectomorpha) from the early Permian of Germany based on the high-resolution X-ray microcomputed tomography.

A detailed anatomy of the braincase and stapes of the subadult specimen of Diadectes absitus from early Permian sediments of Germany are described for the first time based on the high-resolution X-ray microcomputed tomography. In contrast to previous studies of Diadectes, the bones of the braincase (opisthotic, prootic, supraoccipital, basioccipital, exoccipital, basisphenoid, and sphenethmoid), and parasphenoid of D. absitus are not co-ossified, but suturally defined. This has allowed for a reconstruction of a complete braincase with all sutures between the individual bones. The opisthotic, prootic, and supraocciptal contain a well-preserved endosseous labyrinth. The three-dimensional-reconstruction of its cavities shows a well-preserved vestibule, three semicircular canals, and well-developed cochlear recess. In addition, a shallow subarcuate fossa is present on the ventral surface of the supraoccipital, which lies medial to the anterior semicircular canal. A typical feature of the diadectid braincase is the presence of the otic tube leading from the fenestra vestibuli to the vestibule. A revision of the topology of this structure is presented here. Here, we describe new structures of the stapes, especially in its proximal portion, as well as its position to the fenestra vestibuli. These structures are described for the first time not only in D. absitus, but for the genus.

Coronary artery calcium testing: A call for universal coverage.

Heart attacks kill more Americans than all cancers combined. Fatal heart attack victims have no symptoms until minutes before they die, hence early detection of high-risk asymptomatic individuals is needed. Even though heart attacks kill and cost more than cancers, as a nation we spend over 20 times more on screening for asymptomatic cancer than for asymptomatic atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD), the underlying cause of heart attacks. Currently, payers only cover screening for risk factors of ASCVD such as blood pressure and blood cholesterol. This approach tends to miss high-risk and over-treat low-risk individuals. Although treadmill stress testing with ECG is not indicated for ASCVD detection in asymptomatic individuals, it is done often, and frequently leads to misleading conclusions or unnecessary downstream diagnostic procedures. For example, former President Clinton had passed his treadmill stress tests for several years during his presidential annual checkup but had a heart attack shortly after his presidency. This common practice is a waste of our limited resources. Instead, a more accurate risk assessment using coronary artery calcium (CAC) testing is available; and has just been adopted by ACC/AHA guidelines, however payers do not cover it. CAC is measured non-invasively with a 5-minute CT-scan of the heart, and costs less than $200, whereas cancer screening with colonoscopy and mammography costs over $3000. There is an opportunity to save lives and dollars if CAC testing is covered for appropriately selected individuals. Texas has already passed HB1290 to mandate CAC coverage. Other states must step up and take actions.

Dental histology of Coelophysis bauri and the evolution of tooth attachment tissues in early dinosaurs.

Studies of dinosaur teeth have focused primarily on external crown morphology and thus, use shed or in situ tooth crowns, and are limited to the enamel and dentine dental tissues. As a result, the full suites of periodontal tissues that attach teeth to the jaws remain poorly documented, particularly in early dinosaurs. These tissues are an integral part of the tooth and thus essential to a more complete understanding of dental anatomy, development, and evolution in dinosaurs. To identify the tooth attachment tissues in early dinosaurs, histological thin sections were prepared from the maxilla and dentary of a partial skull of the early theropod Coelophysis bauri from the Upper Triassic (Rhaetian- 209-201 Ma) Whitaker Quarry, New Mexico, USA. As one of the phylogenetically and geologically oldest dinosaurs, it is an ideal candidate for examining dental tissues near the base of the dinosaurian clade. The teeth of C. bauri exhibited a fibrous tooth attachment in which the teeth possessed five tissues: enamel, dentine, cementum, periodontal ligament (PDL), and alveolar bone. Our findings, coupled with those of more recent studies of ornithischian teeth, indicate that a tripartite periodontium, similar to that of crocodilians and mammals, is the plesiomorphic condition for dinosaurs. The occurrence of a tripartite periodontium in dinosaurs adds to the growing consensus that the presence of these tissues is the plesiomorphic condition for the major amniote clades. Furthermore, this study establishes the relative timing of tissue development and growth directions of periodontal tissues and provides the first comparative framework for future studies of dinosaur periodontal development, tooth replacement, and histology. J. Morphol. 277:916-924, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

A late-surviving basal theropod dinosaur from the latest Triassic of North America.

The oldest theropod dinosaurs are known from the Carnian of Argentina and Brazil. However, the evolutionary diversification of this group after its initial radiation but prior to the Triassic-Jurassic boundary is still poorly understood because of a sparse fossil record near that boundary. Here, we report on a new basal theropod, Daemonosaurus chauliodus gen. et sp. nov., from the latest Triassic 'siltstone member' of the Chinle Formation of the Coelophysis Quarry at Ghost Ranch, New Mexico. Based on a comprehensive phylogenetic analysis, Daemonosaurus is more closely related to coeval neotheropods (e.g. Coelophysis bauri) than to Herrerasauridae and Eoraptor. The skeletal structure of Daemonosaurus and the recently discovered Tawa bridge a morphological gap between Eoraptor and Herrerasauridae on one hand and neotheropods on the other, providing additional support for the theropod affinities of both Eoraptor and Herrerasauridae and demonstrating that lineages from the initial radiation of Dinosauria persisted until the end of the Triassic. Various features of the skull of Daemonosaurus, including the procumbent dentary and premaxillary teeth and greatly enlarged premaxillary and anterior maxillary teeth, clearly set this taxon apart from coeval neotheropods and demonstrate unexpected disparity in cranial shape among theropod dinosaurs just prior to the end of the Triassic.