Metabolic adaptations leading to an enhanced lignification in wheat roots under salinity stress.

Analysis of salinity tolerance processes in wheat has focused on salt exclusion from shoots while root phenotypes have received limited attention. Here, we consider the varying phenotypic response of four bread wheat varieties that differ in their type and degree of salt tolerance and assess their molecular responses to salinity and changes in root cell wall lignification. These varieties were Westonia introgressed with Nax1 and Nax2 root sodium transporters (HKT1;4-A and HKT1;5-A) that reduce Na+ accumulation in leaves, as well as the 'tissue tolerant' Portuguese landrace Mocho de Espiga Branca that has a mutation in the homologous gene HKT1;5-D and has high Na+ concentration in leaves. These three varieties were compared with the relatively more salt-sensitive cultivar Gladius. Through the use of root histochemical analysis, ion concentrations, as well as differential proteomics and targeted metabolomics, we provide an integrated view of the wheat root response to salinity. We show different metabolic re-arrangements in energy conversion, primary metabolic machinery and phenylpropanoid pathway leading to monolignol production in a genotype and genotype by treatment-dependent manner that alters the extent and localisation of root lignification which correlated with an improved capacity of wheat roots to cope better under salinity stress.

Macroscopic and microscopic study on floral biology and pollination of Cinnamomum verum Blume (Sri Lankan).

Cinnamomum verum Blume (syn Cinnamomum zeylanicum) commonly known as Ceylon cinnamon, has gained worldwide attention due to its health benefits and its unique quality. Therefore, maintaining the yield quality and quantity is essential, especially for high-end value-added products. Knowledge on floral behaviour and reproductive biology is essential for breeding superior varieties and is critical for commercial cultivation efforts. However, limited literature is available on the floral biology of C. verum. Here in this study, we assessed the seasonal flowering, floral development and pollination of two cultivars of C. verum. Both macroscopic and microscopic data were collected on floral biology, pollination, and male and female floral organs before and after pollination. Cinnamomum verum is morpho-anatomically, structurally, and physiologically adapted for cross-pollination, possible between the two cultivars; type A (Sri Gemunu) and type B (Sri Wijaya) flowers; naturally evolved with Protogynous Dichogamy. However, due to changes in environmental conditions, female and male stages in the same tree overlap for about 45-60 min suggesting possible close-pollination within the same plant. During this event some of the pollens were observed hydrated even during self-pollination. In mean time, 4-8% of the flowers formed fruits after natural close and hand pollination which is between male and female phases of the same tree. Although C. verum is adapted for cross-pollination, natural close-pollination is also possible. The data suggest the complex nature of the sexual reproduction of C. verum. Well-managed breeding attempts with controlled factors like temperature and humidity will help to develop superior C. verum varieties.

Polymer modification of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein impacts its ability to bind key receptor.

The global spread of SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2) has caused the loss of many human lives and severe economic losses. SARS-CoV-2 mediates its infection in humans via the spike glycoprotein. The receptor binding domain of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein binds to its cognate receptor, angiotensin converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) to initiate viral entry. In this study, we examine how polymer modification of the spike protein receptor binding domain impacts binding to ACE2. The horseradish peroxidase conjugated receptor binding domain was modified with a range of polymers including hydrophilic N,N-dimethylacrylamide, hydrophobic N-isopropylacrylamide, cationic 3-(N,N-dimethylamino)propylacrylamide, and anionic 2-acrylamido-2-methylpropane sulfonic acid polymers. The effect of polymer chain length was observed using N,N-dimethylacrylamide polymers with degrees of polymerization of 5, 10 and 25. Polymer conjugation of the receptor binding domain significantly reduced the interaction with ACE2 protein, as determined by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Stability analysis showed that these conjugates remained highly stable even after seven days incubation at physiological temperature. Hence, this study provides a detailed view of the effect specific type of modification using a library of polymers with different functionalities in interrupting RBD-ACE2 interaction.

A Multi-Point Identification Approach for the Recognition of Individual Leopards (Panthera pardus kotiya).

Visual leopard identifications performed with camera traps using the capture-recapture method only consider areas of the skin that are visible to the equipment. The method presented here considered the spot or rosette formations of either the two flanks or the face, and the captured images were then compared and matched with available photographs. Leopards were classified as new individuals if no matches were found in the existing set of photos. It was previously assumed that an individual leopard's spot or rosette pattern would not change. We established that the spot and rosette patterns change over time and that these changes are the result of injuries in certain cases. When compared to the original patterns, the number of spots may be lost or reduced, and some spots or patterns may change in terms of their prominence, shape, and size. We called these changes "obliterate changes" and "rejig changes", respectively. The implementation of an earlier method resulted in a duplication of leopard counts, achieving an error rate of more than 15% in the population at Yala National Park. The same leopard could be misidentified and counted multiple times, causing overestimated populations. To address this issue, we created a new two-step methodology for identifying Sri Lankan leopards. The multi-point identification method requires the evaluation of at least 9-10 spot areas before a leopard can be identified. Moreover, the minimum leopard population at the YNP 1 comprises at least 77 leopards and has a density of 0.5461 leopards per km2.

Distinct salinity-induced changes in wheat metabolic machinery in different root tissue types.

The impact of salinity on wheat plants is often studied by analysis of shoot responses, even though the main mechanism of tolerance is shoot Na+ exclusion. Wheat roots directly experience rising NaCl concentrations and show more physiological responses in root tips than in mature roots and altered responses with time; but the molecular reason for these differential responses is unclear. We have found that there is a distinct difference between the proteome responses of wheat root tip and mature root tissues to salinity. Translation and protein synthesis related proteins showed a significant decrease in abundance, most of the glycolytic enzymes and selected TCA cycle enzymes and ATP synthase subunits were significantly decreased in abundance under salt stress in root tips only. The root tip response in wheat indicates the protein synthesis capacity and energy production were impaired under salt stress which correlated with the anatomical response of root growth decrease and its respiratory rate. Wheat root responses are direct and rapid effects of the soil salinity in this species, therefore shoot responses such as reduction in shoot growth and photosynthetic capacity need to be considered in light of these effects on root metabolism. SIGNIFICANCE: Salinity is a critical environmental factor limiting crop production throughout the world. Wheat (Triticum aestivum) is the most significant cereal crop for human nutrition and both its growth and yield is negatively impacted by salinity. Salinity stress is known to impose osmotic stress in plants during the initial phase of exposure and ion toxicity in the later stages of development. Roots are the first plant organ to perceive the salt. However, intensive breading approaches to develop salt tolerant crops have mainly focussed on exclusion of salt from above ground tissues, and only achieved limited success to date. Wheat roots physiologically respond to salinity by overall reduction in the length of seminal roots. The stunting of the wheat root system is considered to be a result of higher sensitivity of root tips to salinity. However, the metabolic changes that underpin selective root tip sensitivity is largely unknown. Here, we carried out non-targeted profiling of mature root versus root tip proteomes under control and salt stress conditions. We found distinct changes in abundance of proteins involved in carbon and energy metabolism and protein metabolism in mature roots and root tips in response to salt stress. We further investigated the impact of these changes on metabolic machinery in the wheat root proteome using a targeted MS approach. We found evidence that protein synthesis and energy production machinery becomes limiting in root tips, while the same processes in mature root remains less affected by salt stress. Our proteomic data explain the impairment of root growth and physiological characteristics as well as improve the understanding of wheat root responses under salinity which is an essential first step for further investigation of molecular traits underpinning root characteristics to improve salt tolerance of wheat.

The wheat secreted root proteome: Implications for phosphorus mobilisation and biotic interactions.

Root secreted acid phosphatases and organic anions are widely perceived as major players of plant phosphorus (P) mobilisation from the rhizosphere under P limiting growth conditions. Previous research indicated that other mechanisms play a role, especially in species with fine roots, such as wheat. In this study we characterised the plant-derived extracellular proteome of wheat roots by profiling root tip mucilage, soluble root secreted and root tip proteomes. Extracellular acid phosphatases and enzymes of the central carbon metabolism were targeted using selected reaction monitoring. More than 140 proteins with extracellular localisation prediction were identified in mucilage. P starvation induced proteins predicted to be localised to the apoplast which are related to cell wall modification and defence in both, root tip and soluble root-secreted proteomes. Glycolytic enzymes were strongly increased in abundance by P limitation in root tips, as were PEPC and plastidial MDH. Soluble acid phosphatases were not identified in extracellular protein samples. Our results indicate that root tip mucilage contains proteins with the functional potential to actively shape their immediate environment by modification of plant structural components and biotic interactions. Wheat acid phosphatases appear to play a minor role in P mobilisation beyond the immediate root surface. SIGNIFICANCE: Phosphorus (P) is a plant growth limiting nutrient in many agricultural situations and the development of phosphorus efficient crops is of paramount importance for future agricultural management practices. As P is relatively immobile in soils, processes occurring at the root-soil interface, the rhizosphere, are suspected to play a key role in plant-induced P mobilisation. According to the current view, the secretion of extracellular acid phosphatases and organic anions enhances P mobilisation within several millimetres beyond the root surface, either directly or indirectly through the selection and appropriate soil microbes. However, the mechanisms of P mobilisation in species with fine roots, such as wheat, and the role of other secreted root proteins are poorly understood. Here, we carried out the profiling of wheat root tip mucilage, soluble root secreted and root tip proteomes. We analysed proteome changes in response to P starvation. We found that proteins with a predicted localisation to the apoplast made up a major proportion of stress-responsive proteins. Acid phosphatases were not identified within extracellular protein samples, which were enriched in proteins with predicted extracellular localisation. The absence of extracellular APases was further validated by multiple reaction monitoring. Our data indicates that wheat acid phosphatases play a minor role in P mobilisation beyond the immediate root surface and provides a resource for breeding strategies and further investigations of the functional roles of root tip-released proteins in the rhizosphere under P limitation.

A Review of Ganoderma Triterpenoids and Their Bioactivities.

For centuries, Ganoderma has been used as a traditional medicine in Asian countries to prevent and treat various diseases. Numerous publications are stating that Ganoderma species have a variety of beneficial medicinal properties, and investigations on different metabolic regulations of Ganoderma species, extracts or isolated compounds have been performed both in vitro and in vivo. However, it has frequently been questioned whether Ganoderma is simply a dietary supplement for health or just a useful "medication" for restorative purposes. More than 600 chemical compounds including alkaloids, meroterpenoids, nucleobases, nucleosides, polysaccharides, proteins, steroids and triterpenes were extracted and identified from Ganoderma, with triterpenes serving as the primary components. In recent years, Ganoderma triterpenes and other small molecular constituents have aroused the interest of chemists and pharmacologists. Meanwhile, considering the significance of the triterpene constituents in the development of new drugs, this review describes 495 compounds from 25 Ganoderma species published between 1984 and 2022, commenting on their source, biosynthetic pathway, identification, biological activities and biosynthesis, together with applications of advanced analytical techniques to the characterization of Ganoderma triterpenoids.

Double-Layer Sign: A New OCT Finding in Active Tubercular Serpiginous-like Choroiditis to Monitor Activity.

PURPOSE: To describe a novel spectral-domain (SD) OCT finding of a double-layer sign at the site of activity in tubercular serpiginous-like choroiditis (SLC) and how this sign can be used to assess treatment response in these eyes. DESIGN: Retrospective, observational case series. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed simultaneous fundus photographs and SD OCT and fundus autofluorescence (FAF) images of eyes affected with tubercular SLC from the acute stage until resolution of lesions using the Heidelberg Spectralis HRA and OCT system (Heidelberg Engineering, Heidelberg, Germany). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Occurence of the double layer sign (DLS) during activity; reduction in the double layer sign (DLS) with resolution of choroidal and retinal inflammation; correlation of SD OCT and FAF findings. RESULTS: Five eyes of 5 patients were studied in detail. Spectral-domain OCT findings included choroidal elevation and a double-layer sign (separation of hyperreflective retinal pigment epithelium [RPE] from Bruch's membrane, with the gap between them showing moderate reflectivity) at the site of activity. This correlated with hyperautofluorescence with indistinct borders on FAF imaging. Reduction in the double-layer sign became evident as the lesions began to resolve, and eventually this area was replaced by hyperreflective, irregular, knobbly elevations of the RPE. In eyes with severe inflammation and increased choroidal elevation on OCT, the double-layer sign was very prominent. As the choroidal elevation decreased on OCT, increased reflectance from the choroidal layers was evident. As the lesions resolved, the lesions became predominantly hypoautofluorescent on FAF and loss of RPE, ellipsoid zone, and external limiting membrane on SD OCT scan became evident. Good correlation was found between the resolution of the double-layer sign on SD OCT and FAF findings. CONCLUSIONS: The double-layer sign on SD OCT may be a useful finding in monitoring the activity in tubercular SLC. The OCT changes can be correlated with FAF imaging in these eyes.

Seroprevalence of Lymes disease in the Nagarahole and Bandipur forest areas of South India.

Purpose: The aim of this study was to determine the seroprevalence of Lymes disease in a population at risk in south India. Methods: Prospective ongoing study and included screening of forest workers and staff of Nagarahole and Bandipur forest ranges in South India for Lymes disease. Screening included a detailed questionnaire for Lymes disease, complete ocular and systemic examination by an ophthalmologist and infectious disease specialist and blood collection. ELISA for IgM and IgG antibodies for Borrelia burgdorferi were performed on the collected sera samples. Western blot confirmation was done on the seropositive samples. Ticks were also collected from these forest areas for future studies to detect if they harbor B. burgdorferi. Results: Seroprevalence of 19.9% was noted by ELISA. Western blot confirmation was seen in 15.6% of the seropositive samples. There was significant correlation between seropositivity and exposure to tick bites (P = 0.023). Conclusion: There is a high seroprevalence of infection with B. burgdorferi in the forest areas of Nagarahole and Bandipur ranges in south India.

Near full thickness macular hole with an intact overlying internal limiting membrane following resolution of fulminant acquired toxoplasma retinitis -A unique finding.

A 43-year-old immunocompetent male presented with focal macular retinitis with overlying vitritis in the right eye. His BCVA was counting fingers close to face. OCT showed increased intraretinal thickness at the area of retinitis with adjacent hypo reflectivity of the choroid. Serology was positive for IgM and IgG antibodies for toxoplasma. He received oral clindamycin 300 mg 4 times/day for 8 weeks. At 6 weeks, his BCVA was CF 2 metres. Fundus showed complete resolution of retinitis with formation of near, full thickness macular hole with intact overlying ILM. A small hyper reflective scar was seen at the base of the macular hole.

Local infiltration versus laparoscopic-guided transverse abdominis plane block in laparoscopic cholecystectomy: double-blinded randomized control trial.

BACKGROUND: Transverse abdominal plane block (TAP) is a new technique of regional block described to reduce postoperative pain in laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC). Recent reports describe an easy technique to deliver local anesthetic agent under laparoscopic guidance. METHODS: This randomized control trial was designed to compare the effectiveness of additional laparoscopic-guided TAP block against the standard full thickness port site infiltration. 45 patients were randomized in to each arm after excluding emergency LC, conversions, ones with coagulopathy, pregnancy and allergy to local anesthetics. All cases were four ports LC. Interventions-Both groups received standard port site infiltration with 3-5 ml of 0.25% bupivacaine. The test group received additional laparoscopic-guided TAP block with 20 ml of 0.25% bupivacaine subcostally, between the anterior axillary and mid clavicular lines. As outcome measures the pain score, opioid requirement, episodes of nausea and vomiting and time to mobilize was measured at 6 hourly intervals. RESULTS: The two groups were comparable in the age, gender, body mass index, indication for cholecystectomy difficulty index and surgery duration. The pain score at 6 h (P = 0.043) and opioid requirement at 6 h (P = 0.026) was higher in the TAP group. These were similar in subsequent assessments. Other secondary outcomes were similar in the two groups. CONCLUSION: Laparoscopic-guided transverses abdominis plane block using plain bupivacaine does not give an additional pain relief or other favorable outcomes. It can worsen the pain scores. Pre registration: The trial was registered in Sri Lanka clinical trial registry-SLCTR/2016/011 ( http://www.slctr.lk/trials/357 ).

Expression of ß-hexosaminidase in the male reproductive system of the lizard, Eutropis carinata. (Reptilia, Squamata) (Schneider, 1801).

Beta-hexosaminidase (Hex) is the major lysosomal enzyme associated with the event of fertilization. In this study, we have analyzed the distribution of Hex in the testis and the epididymis of the lizard, Eutropis carinata by a polyclonal antibody of ß-hexosaminidase isoform (Hex A). Presence of Hex in the epididymis was performed by Western blotting. The result reveals that Hex A is present in the epididymal epithelium, lumen as well as spermatozoa. The anatomical distribution of Hex was studied by immunohistochemical localization. The study reveals that Hex is intensely stained in the epithelium of anterior and middle regions of the epididymis, whereas, posterior epididymal epithelium shows moderate staining. In addition, seminiferous epithelium of the testis shows staining for Hex. But lumen of the testis did not show any reaction for Hex. Further, immunohistochemical localization of Hex on the spermatozoa from the testis and different regions of the epididymis revealed that the Hex from the testis did not show any staining; the epididymal epithelium is moderately localized in the spermatozoa of the anterior region and gradually increases in the intensity in the spermatozoa of the posterior region of the epididymis. This indicates that the Hex is released from the epididymal epithelium and binds to the spermatozoa, and in the lumen, it gradually increases from anterior to the posterior region of the epididymis. The result also suggests that Hex A bound to the epididymal spermatozoa originates from the epididymis and not from the testis. The regional difference in the expression of Hex in the epididymis of the lizard, E. carinata, indicates the possible site of secretion of this enzyme.

Identification and characterisation of the epididymal proteins in the lizard, Eutropis carinata (Reptilia, Squamata) (Schneider, 1801).

Lizards are seasonal breeders. Cyclic reproductive nature makes lizard as a useful model for the study of the reproductively active protein secretions in the epididymis. During breeding season, the epididymides of the lizard secret proteins that mixes with the spermatozoa and create a favourable environment for sperm maturation. In this spectrum, the aim of this study is to identify and characterize proteins which are present in the lumen of the epididymis of the lizard, E. carinata during the active phase of reproduction. The identification and analysis of the proteins are done through the proteomic approaches. The epididymal luminal fluid sample was taken from the reproductively active and inactive phase and these are subjected to the size exclusion chromatography. Two major peaks (peak 1 and peak 2) were obtained in the epididymal luminal fluid sample taken during the reproductively active phase. On the other hand, the sample from the reproductively inactive phase showed one peak (peak 1) whereas, peak 2 is not present during this phase. The peak 2 belong to reproductively active phase was later subjected to the proteomic analysis. Appropriate gel electrophoresis separation and purification methods are combined with LC-MS/MS in order to identify and characterize the proteins that are presented during the reproductively active phase. Further, in this work, nine proteins are identified including three enzymes and three heat shock proteins. Among the identified proteins, bioinformatics analysis predicts that majority of them are localized in the cytoplasm. In addition to this, an observation is made in the endoplasmic reticulum where it is seen that a close protein-protein interaction network of three molecular chaperones are involved in protein processing. Overall, this paper opens up a new dimension search for epididymal markers for the first time in reptiles, particularly lizards.

Sex worker-led structural interventions in India: a case study on addressing violence in HIV prevention through the Ashodaya Samithi collective in Mysore.

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES: Structural interventions have the capacity to improve the outcomes of HIV/AIDS interventions by changing the social, economic, political or environmental factors that determine risk and vulnerability. Marginalized groups face disproportionate barriers to health, and sex workers are among those at highest risk of HIV in India. Evidence in India and globally has shown that sex workers face violence in many forms ranging from verbal, psychological and emotional abuse to economic extortion, physical and sexual violence and this is directly linked to lower levels of condom use and higher levels of sexually transmitted infections (STIs), the most critical determinants of HIV risk. We present here a case study of an intervention that mobilized sex workers to lead an HIV prevention response that addresses violence in their daily lives. METHODS: This study draws on ethnographic research and project monitoring data from a community-led structural intervention in Mysore, India, implemented by Ashodaya Samithi. Qualitative and quantitative data were used to characterize baseline conditions, community responses and subsequent outcomes related to violence. RESULTS: In 2004, the incidence of reported violence by sex workers was extremely high (> 8 incidents per sex worker, per year) but decreased by 84 per cent over 5 years. Violence by police and anti-social elements, initially most common, decreased substantially after a safe space was established for sex workers to meet and crisis management and advocacy were initiated with different stakeholders. Violence by clients, decreased after working with lodge owners to improve safety. However, initial increases in intimate partner violence were reported, and may be explained by two factors: (i) increased willingness to report such incidents; and (ii) increased violence as a reaction to sex workers' growing empowerment. Trafficking was addressed through the establishment of a self-regulatory board (SRB). The community's progressive response to violence was enabled by advancing community mobilization, ensuring community ownership of the intervention, and shifting structural vulnerabilities, whereby sex workers increasingly engaged key actors in support of a more enabling environment. INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSIONS: Ashodaya's community-led response to violence at multiple levels proved highly synergistic and effective in reducing structural violence.

Confronting structural violence in sex work: lessons from a community-led HIV prevention project in Mysore, India.

Evidence from community-led HIV prevention projects suggests that structural interventions may result in reduced rates of HIV and STIs. The complex relationship between empowerment and confronting stigma, discrimination and physical abuse necessitates further investigation into the impact that such interventions have on the personal risks for sex workers. This article aims to describe lived experiences of members from a sex worker's collective in Mysore, India and how they have confronted structural violence. The narratives highlight experiences of violence and the development and implementation of strategies that have altered the social, physical, and emotional environment for sex workers. Building an enabling environment was key to reducing personal risks inherent to sex work, emphasizing the importance of community-led structural interventions for sex workers in India.

Concentration of cations in different parts of male reproductive system and their influence on in vitro sperm motility in lizard, Mabuya carinata Schneider.

Concentrations of mono- and divalent cations in the testis, three different regions of the epididymis and the vas deferens of lizard, M. carinata were determined. The concentrations of Na+, K+ and Ca2+ increased gradually from testis to vas deferens. However, no significant variation in the levels of Mg2+ was observed between testis and anterior epididymis, and between posterior epididymis and vas deferens. Further, in an in vitro sperm motility study, wherein different concentrations of the cations were tested, the maximum forward progressive motility of posterior epididymal spermatozoa was observed following treatment with 140 mMNaCl, 25 mM KCl, and 50 mM CaCl2 whereas, treatment with magnesium brought about a decrease in sperm motility. The results indicate that Na+, K+, and Ca2+ have stimulatory effect at an optimum dose, whereas Mg2+ has an inhibitory effect even at very low concentration, on sperm motility in the lizard M carinata.

Testis of the lizard Mabuya carinata: a light microscopic and ultrastructural seasonal study.

Histomorphology and ultrastructure of the testis during breeding and nonbreeding phases of the reproductive cycle of the lizard Mabuya carinata are studied. Observations of the ultrastructural features of the testis during breeding and nonbreeding phases of the reproductive cycle reveal a prenuptial type of spermatogenesis and a clearcut discontinuous spermatogenic cycle. Seminiferous tubules are enlarged and there is active spermatogenesis as shown by the presence of all the stages of spermatogenesis (spermatogonia to spermatids) and spermatozoa during the breeding phase (November). During the nonbreeding phase (April) only spermatogonia and Sertoli cells are seen in the shrunken seminiferous tubules. Leydig cells and Sertoli cells show distinct changes in the morphological appearance with hypertrophy of the cells in breeding phase and atrophy of the cells in the nonbreeding phase of the reproductive cycle. The present study suggests that Sertoli cells and Leydig cells functions are synchronous in the lizard M. carinata.

Ultrastructural study of the epididymis and the vas deferens and electrophoretic profile of their luminal fluid proteins in the lizard Mabuya carinata.

The light microscopy, histochemical and TEM studies of the epididymis and the vas deferens revealed the presence of PAS positive secretory granules in the epithelial cells lining the lumen of these organs. One dimensional SDS gel electrophoretic pattern of luminal fluid proteins and the total protein content of the testis, three regions of the epididymis and the vas deferens of the lizard, Mabuya carinata were studied during breeding and nonbreeding season of the reproductive cycle. During breeding season, 25 protein bands in the testicular luminal fluid, 26 in the anterior epididymal luminal fluid and 28 in the middle and posterior epididymal luminal fluid were found. Ten new protein bands appeared in the anterior epididymal region whereas five new protein bands appeared in the middle region of the epididymis indicating regional difference in protein secretions of the epididymis. Vas deferens luminal fluid showed the highest number of protein bands (32) and the highest total protein content (9.07 mg/ml) compared to the testis and the epididymis. Four new protein bands appeared in the vas deferens. Number of protein bands in the luminal fluids of testis, epididymis and the vas deferens were significantly reduced during nonbreeding season compared to those of the breeding season. Consistent with the decrease in the number of protein bands, there was a significant reduction in the total protein concentration in all the tissue samples during nonbreeding season. The results indicate seasonal differences in number of proteins secreted and quantity of proteins in the luminal fluid of male reproductive tract of M. carinata. This is the first study in reptiles revealing appearance of new proteins in epididymis, and vas deferens by conducting simultaneous electrophoretic profile of testicular, epididymal and vas deferens luminal contents.

Light microscopical and ultrastructural studies on the vas deferens of the lizard Mabuya carinata.

Adult male lizards (Mabuya carinata) were studied during breeding and non breeding seasons to determine the regional and seasonal differences if any in the vas deferens and to compare ultrastructural features of luminal epithelial cells with those of endotherms. The vas deferens of the lizard is a convoluted tube extending from the epididymis to the hemipenis passing over the kidney. Based on morphometric data of luminal diameter and epithelial cell height three distinct regions viz; proximal, middle and distal regions were identified in the vas deferens. The epithelium is surrounded by a thin layer of lamina propria, many layers of circular smooth muscle fibers and an outer layer of visceral pleuro peritoneum. Based on cell and nuclear morphology and ultrastructure, five different cell types viz; principal cell, basal cell, mitochondria rich cell, halo cell and narrow cell were identified in the epithelium during both breeding and non breeding season. Principal cells and basal cells were more abundant in both seasons. The types of luminal epithelial cells of vas deferens of M. carinata and their ultrastructural features are similar to those of mammals. Further, vas deferens of M. carinata differs from mammals in having only circular smooth muscles in contrast to circular and longitudinal muscles of mammalian vas deferens. To the best of our knowledge this is the first report describing cell types of vas deferens, their ultrastructure and ultrastructural seasonal variations in reptiles.