Diversity of methanogenic archaea in freshwater sediments of lacustrine ecosystems.

About half of the global methane (CH4 ) emission is contributed by the methanogenic archaeal communities leading to a significant increase in global warming. This unprecedented situation has increased the ever growing necessity of evaluating the control measures for limiting CH4 emission to the atmosphere. Unfortunately, research endeavors on the diversity and functional interactions of methanogens are not extensive till date. We anticipate that the study of the diversity of methanogenic community is paramount for understanding the metabolic processes in freshwater lake ecosystems. Although there are several disadvantages of conventional culture-based methods for determining the diversity of methanogenic archaeal communities, in order to understand their ecological roles in natural environments it is required to culture the microbes. Recently different molecular techniques have been developed for determining the structure of methanogenic archaeal communities thriving in freshwater lake ecosystem. The two gene based cloning techniques required for this purpose are 16S rRNA and methyl coenzyme M reductase (mcrA) in addition to the recently developed metagenomics approaches and high throughput next generation sequencing efforts. This review discusses the various methods of culture-dependent and -independent measures of determining the diversity of methanogen communities in lake sediments in lieu of the different molecular approaches and inter-relationships of diversity of methanogenic archaea.

Genipin-Crosslinked Gelatin-Based Emulgels: an Insight into the Thermal, Mechanical, and Electrical Studies.

The present study discusses about the preparation and characterization (thermal, mechanical, and electrical) of the genipin-crosslinked gelatin emulgels. Emulgels have gained importance in recent years due to their improved stability than emulsions and ability to control the drug release. Mustard oil was used as the representative oil. A decrease in the enthalpy and entropy of the formulations was observed with the increase in the oil fraction. The mechanical studies suggested formation of softer emulgels as the oil fraction was increased. As the proportion of the oil fraction was increased in the emulgels, there was a corresponding increase in the impedance. The drug release properties from the emulgels were also studied. Ciprofloxacin was used as the model antimicrobial drug. The drug release was higher from the emulgels whose electrical conductivity was higher.

Modulating the properties of sunflower oil based novel emulgels using castor oil fatty acid ester: prospects for topical antimicrobial drug delivery.

The current study describes the effect of polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR) on the properties of sunflower oil and span-40 based emulgels. The prepared emulgels contained PGPR in varied concentrations. The microstructure of the emulgels was characterized by bright-field microscopy. The molecular interactions amongst the components of the emulgels were studied using FTIR spectroscopy. The flow and mechanical behaviors of the emulgels were studied using cone-and-plate viscometer and static mechanical tester, respectively. The efficiency of the metronidazole-loaded emulgels as antimicrobial formulations was tested in vitro. E. coli was used as the model microorganism for the antimicrobial study. The emulgels were also explored for iontophoretic delivery applications. The biocompatibility of the emulgels was tested using human keratinocytes (HaCaT). The microscopic evaluation of the emulgels indicated formation of biphasic formulations. FTIR studies suggested a decrease in the hydrogen bonding amongst the components of the emulgels as the concentration of the PGPR was increased. Viscosity studies indicated shear-thinning property of the emulgels. An increase in the PGPR concentration resulted in the reduction in the mechanical properties of the emulgels. Incorporation of PGPR resulted in the decrease in the drug released (both passive and iontophoresis) from the emulgels. The emulgels were found to be cytocompatible in the presence of keratinocytes. The drug loaded emulgels showed good antimicrobial activity against E. coli. In gist, the developed emulgels can be tried for controlled delivery of antimicrobial drugs. The physical and the release properties of the emulgels can be modulated by incorporating PGPR in varied proportions.

Characterization of gelatin-agar based phase separated hydrogel, emulgel and bigel: a comparative study.

The current study describes the in-depth characterization of agar-gelatin based co-hydrogels, emulgels and bigels to have an insight about the differences in the properties of the formulations. Hydrogels have been extensively studied as vehicle for controlled drug release, whereas, the concept of emulgels and bigels is relatively new. The formulations were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, FTIR spectroscopy, XRD and mechanical properties. The biocompatibility and the ability of the formulations to be used as drug delivery vehicle were also studied. The scanning electron micrographs suggested the presence of internal phases within the agar-gelatin composite matrices of co-hydrogel, emulgel and bigel. FTIR and XRD studies suggested higher crystallinity of emulgels and bigels. Electrical impedance and mechanical stability of the emulgel and the bigel was higher than the hydrogel. The prepared formulations were found to be biocompatible and suitable for drug delivery applications.

Guar gum and sesame oil based novel bigels for controlled drug delivery.

Bigels are novel semi-solid formulations which have been drawing attention of many research scientists due to their numerous advantages over the conventional gels. The objective of this study was to develop and characterize novel bigels by mixing guar gum hydrogel and sorbitan monostearate-sesame oil based organogel for controlled drug delivery applications. The confocal microscopy suggested the existence of both aqueous and oil phases together as bigel. Micro-scale deformation (viscometric) analysis in conjugation with macro-scale deformation studies suggested shear-thinning and viscoelastic nature of the bigels. Thermal study suggested an increase in thermal stability with the increase in organogel proportion in the bigels. The developed bigels were biocompatible in nature. The in vitro drug release study showed that the release of ciprofloxacin (lipophilic drug) increased with a decrease in the organogel content. Further analysis showed that the drug release from all the bigels followed zero order diffusion kinetics which is desirable for a controlled release system. The drug loaded gels showed good antimicrobial efficiency against Bacillus subtilis. In conclusion, the developed bigels may be tried as matrices for topical drug delivery.

Preparation and characterization of novel carbopol based bigels for topical delivery of metronidazole for the treatment of bacterial vaginosis.

The current study reports the development of bigels using sorbitan monostearate-sesame oil organogel and carbopol 934 hydrogel. The microstructures and physicochemical properties were investigated by microscopy, viscosity measurement, mechanical analysis and differential scanning calorimetry analysis. Fluorescence microscopy confirmed the formation of oil-in-water type of emulsion gel. There was an increase in the strength of the bigels as the proportion of the organogel was increased in the bigels. The developed bigels showed shear-thinning flow behavior. The stress relaxation study suggested viscoelastic nature of the bigels. The developed bigels were biocompatible. Metronidazole, drug of choice for the treatment of bacterial vaginosis, loaded bigels showed diffusion-mediated drug release. The drug loaded gels showed good antimicrobial efficiency against Escherichia coli. In gist, the developed bigels may be used as delivery vehicles for the vaginal delivery of the drugs.