Healthcare Utilization and Costs Associated with New-Onset Pain in a Medicare Population.

BACKGROUND: Chronic pain is a common and growing problem in the United States with variable strategies for its treatment. Surgical interventions are necessary in some cases but not required for all patients with new-onset pain. For some patients, interventional pain management (IPM) techniques can treat chronic pain without the cost or risk associated with surgical intervention. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to compare healthcare utilization and costs for new-onset chronic pain treated by IPM specialists to those treated by providers with surgical specialties (i.e., orthopedists and neurosurgeons). STUDY DESIGN: This was a retrospective observational study of qualifying patients over 36-months (2016-2019). SETTING: This study was conducted using 100% Medicare FFS Parts A, B, and Prescription Drug Event (PDE) Part D data, including enrollment and claims. METHODS: Patients with a diagnosis of pain were identified in the claims data. Twelve months of pre-period claims were examined to ensure the incident diagnosis of pain, and 2 additional pain diagnoses were required after initial diagnosis. Patients were assigned either to the IPM cohort or a Surgical cohort based on the specialty of the provider involved in their first pain-related visit after initial diagnosis. Key outcomes, such as the utilization of healthcare services and cost of care, were evaluated for both cohorts over the 24-months following the index diagnosis of pain. RESULTS: 106,658 beneficiaries were included in the study with roughly 36% in the IPM cohort. Patients in the IPM cohort were less healthy and had lower incomes in the baseline period compared to the Surgical cohort. Fewer members of the IPM cohort had an inpatient stay in the 24-months post index pain diagnosis (40% compared to 43% in the surgery cohort) and the IPM cohort had fewer patients with a post-acute care stay (29% compared to 31% in the inpatient stay cohort). The IPM cohort had lower risk-adjusted total costs of care than the Surgical cohort, driven by lower inpatient, outpatient, and post-acute care costs. LIMITATIONS: Retrospective claims data may not include some factors important to patients with a pain diagnosis (such as over-the-counter medications, holistic treatments, or pain scores). CONCLUSION(S): By shifting patients from higher-cost and more invasive surgical procedures, IPM's multidisciplinary approach to pain treatment can reduce surgical utilization and costs for certain chronic pain patients. This shift away from more expensive surgical treatments fits well with Medicare's move toward value-based care, driven by a focus on patient outcomes including health care utilization and costs.

Trends in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder medication use: a retrospective observational study using population-based databases.

BACKGROUND: The use of medications to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has increased, but the prevalence of ADHD medication use across different world regions is not known. Our objective was to determine regional and national prevalences of ADHD medication use in children and adults, with a specific focus on time trends in ADHD medication prevalence. METHODS: We did a retrospective, observational study using population-based databases from 13 countries and one Special Administrative Region (SAR): four in Asia and Australia, two in North America, five in northern Europe, and three in western Europe. We used a common protocol approach to define study populations and parameters similarly across countries and the SAR. Study populations consisted of all individuals aged 3 years or older between Jan 1, 2001, and Dec 31, 2015 (dependent on data availability). We estimated annual prevalence of ADHD medication use with 95% CI during the study period, by country and region and stratified by age and sex. We reported annual absolute and relative percentage changes to describe time trends. FINDINGS: 154·5 million individuals were included in the study. ADHD medication use prevalence in 2010 (in children aged 3-18 years) varied between 0·27% and 6·69% in the countries and SAR assessed (0·95% in Asia and Australia, 4·48% in North America, 1·95% in northern Europe, and 0·70% in western Europe). The prevalence of ADHD medication use among children increased over time in all countries and regions, and the absolute increase per year ranged from 0·02% to 0·26%. Among adults aged 19 years or older, the prevalence of any ADHD medication use in 2010 varied between 0·003% and 1·48% (0·05% in Asia and Australia, 1·42% in North America, 0·47% in northern Europe, and 0·03% in western Europe). The absolute increase in ADHD medication use prevalence per year ranged from 0·0006% to 0·12%. Methylphenidate was the most commonly used ADHD medication in most countries. INTERPRETATION: Using a common protocol and data from 13 countries and one SAR, these results show increases over time but large variations in ADHD medication use in multiple regions. The recommendations of evidence-based guidelines need to be followed consistently in clinical practice. Further research is warranted to describe the safety and effectiveness of ADHD medication in the short and long term, and to inform evidence-based guidelines, particularly in adults. FUNDING: None.

Differences in Medicaid Antipsychotic Medication Measures Among Children with SSI, Foster Care, and Income-Based Aid.

BACKGROUND: Concerns about antipsychotic prescribing for children, particularly those enrolled in Medicaid and with Supplemental Security Income (SSI), continue despite recent calls for selective use within established guidelines. OBJECTIVES: To (a) examine the application of 6 quality measures for antipsychotic medication prescribing in children and adolescents receiving Medicaid and (b) understand distinctive patterns across eligibility categories in order to inform ongoing quality management efforts to support judicious antipsychotic use. METHODS: Using data for 10 states from the 2008 Medicaid Analytic Extract (MAX), a cross-sectional assessment of 144,200 Medicaid beneficiaries aged < 21 years who received antipsychotics was conducted to calculate the prevalence of 6 quality measures for antipsychotic medication management, which were developed in 2012-2014 by the National Collaborative for Innovation in Quality Measurement. These measures addressed antipsychotic polypharmacy, higher-than-recommended doses of antipsychotics, use of psychosocial services before antipsychotic initiation, follow-up after initiation, baseline metabolic screening, and ongoing metabolic monitoring. RESULTS: Compared with children eligble for income-based Medicaid, children receiving SSI and in foster care were twice as likely to receive higher-than-recommended doses of antipsychotics (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 2.4, 95% CI = 2.3-2.6; AOR = 2.5, 95% CI = 2.4-2.6, respectively) and multiple concurrent antipsychotic medications (AOR = 2.2, 95% CI = 2.0-2.4; AOR = 2.2, 95% CI = 2.0-2.4, respectively). However, children receiving SSI and in foster care were more likely to have appropriate management, including psychosocial visits before initiating antipsychotic treatment and ongoing metabolic monitoring. While children in foster care were more likely to experience baseline metabolic screening, SSI children were no more likely than children eligible for income-based aid to receive baseline screening. CONCLUSIONS: While indicators of overuse were more common in SSI and foster care groups, access to follow-up, metabolic monitoring, and psychosocial services was somewhat better for these children. However, substantial quality shortfalls existed for all groups, particularly metabolic screening and monitoring. Renewed efforts are needed to improve antipsychotic medication management for all children. DISCLOSURES: This project was supported by grant number U18HS020503 from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) and Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS). Additional support for Rutgers-based participants was provided from AHRQ grants R18 HS019937 and U19HS021112, as well as the New York State Office of Mental Health. The content of this study is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of AHRQ, CMS, or the New York State Office of Mental Health. Finnerty has been the principle investigator on research grants/contracts from Bristol Myers Squibb and Sunovion, but her time on these projects is fully supported by the New York State Office of Mental Health. Scholle, Byron, and Morden work for the National Committee for Quality Assurance, a not-for-profit organization that develops and maintains quality measures. Neese-Todd was at Rutgers University at the time of this study and is now employed by the National Committee for Quality Assurance. The other authors have no financial relationships relevant to this article to disclose. Study concept and design were contributed by Finnerty, Neese-Todd, and Crystal, assisted by Scholle, Leckman-Westin, Horowitz, and Hoagwood. Scholle, Byron, Morden, and Hoagwood collected the data, and data interpretation was performed by Pritam, Bilder, Leckman-Westin, and Finnerty, with assistance from Scholle, Byron, Crystal, Kealey, and Neese-Todd. The manuscript was written by Leckman-Westin, Kealey, and Horowitz and revised by Layman, Crystal, Leckman-Westin, Finnerty, Scholle, Neese-Todd, and Horowitz, along with the other authors.

Ten-Year Trends In Treatment Services For Children With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Enrolled In Medicaid.

Closing the gap between evidence-based clinical practice standards and their inclusion in routine practice continues to be a major goal of health policy reforms. This gap is especially large for the care of children with psychiatric disorders-especially those from low-income families, many of whom are insured through Medicaid. To address this gap, we analyzed trends over ten years (2001-10) from Medicaid claims data describing changes over time in medication, psychotherapy, and combined treatment services for children diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Over this time, more children received treatments that conformed to practice standards, including the use of combination treatments of medication and psychotherapy. Rates of combined treatment increased by 74 percent, rates of psychotherapy alone more than doubled, and rates of medication alone decreased by 18 percent. Rates of diagnoses without any reimbursed treatment decreased by 39 percent. These trends suggest increasing adherence to clinical practice standards by providers serving children with ADHD in the Medicaid population, although the quality of those services is unknown.

Rapid Growth Of Antipsychotic Prescriptions For Children Who Are Publicly Insured Has Ceased, But Concerns Remain.

The rapid growth of antipsychotic medication use among publicly insured children in the early and mid-2000s spurred new state efforts to monitor and improve prescription behavior. A starting point for many oversight initiatives was the foster care system, where most of the children are insured publicly through Medicaid. To understand the context and the effects of these initiatives, we analyzed patterns and trends in antipsychotic treatment of Medicaid-insured children in foster care and those in Medicaid but not in foster care. We found that the trend of rapidly increasing use of antipsychotics appears to have ceased since 2008. Children in foster care treated with antipsychotic medications are now more likely than other Medicaid-insured children to receive psychosocial interventions and metabolic monitoring for the side effects of the medications. However, challenges persist in increasing safety monitoring and access to psychosocial treatment. Development of specialized managed care plans for children in foster care represents a promising policy opportunity. New national quality measures for safe and judicious antipsychotic medication use are also now available to guide improvement. Oversight policies developed for foster care appear to have potential for adaptation to the broader population of Medicaid-covered children.

Access to Psychosocial Services Prior to Starting Antipsychotic Treatment Among Medicaid-Insured Youth.

OBJECTIVE: To examine rates and predictors of receiving a psychosocial service before initiating antipsychotic treatment among young people in the Medicaid program. METHOD: A retrospective new-user cohort study of 8 state Medicaid programs focused on children and adolescents 0 to 20 years, initiating antipsychotic treatment (N = 24,372). The proportion receiving a psychosocial service in the 3 months before initiating antipsychotic treatment was calculated and stratified by socio-demographic and diagnostic characteristics arranged in 9 hierarchical groups, as follows: developmental, psychotic/bipolar, disruptive, attention-deficit/hyperactivity, obsessive-compulsive, stress, major depressive, anxiety, and other disorders. RESULTS: Less than one-half of youth received a psychosocial service before initiating antipsychotic treatment (48.8%). Compared to younger adolescents (12-17 years) initiating antipsychotic treatment (51.5%), corresponding younger children (0-5 years; 39.2%) and older adolescents (18-20 years; 40.1%), but not older children (6-11 years; 51.5%), were significantly less likely to have received a psychosocial service. In relation to youth diagnosed with psychotic or bipolar disorder (52.7%), those diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity (43.3%), developmental (41.4%), depressive (46.5%), or anxiety (35.6%) disorder were significantly less likely to have received a psychosocial service during the 3 months before antipsychotic initiation. By contrast, youth diagnosed with stress disorders (61.2%) were significantly more likely than those diagnosed with psychotic or bipolar disorders (52.7%) to have received a psychosocial service before starting an antipsychotic. CONCLUSION: A majority of Medicaid-insured youth initiating antipsychotic treatment have not received a psychosocial service in the preceding 3 months. This service pattern highlights a critical gap in access to psychosocial services.

Best Practices: MEDNET: a multistate policy maker-researcher collaboration to improve prescribing practices.

States face new federal requirements to monitor psychotropic prescribing practices for children and adults enrolled in Medicaid. Effective use of quality measurement and quality improvement strategies hold the promise of improved outcomes for public mental health systems. The Medicaid/Mental Health Network for Evidence-Based Treatment (MEDNET), funded by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, is a multistate Medicaid quality collaborative with the Rutgers University Center for Health Services Research on Pharmacotherapy, Chronic Disease Management, and Outcomes. This column describes the development, infrastructure, challenges, and early evidence of success of this public-academic partnership, the first multistate Medicaid quality improvement collaborative to focus on psychotropic medications.

Bipolar medication use and adherence to antiretroviral therapy among patients with HIV-AIDS and bipolar disorder.

OBJECTIVE: The study examined relationships between adherence to bipolar medication and to antiretroviral therapy, measured by medication fills, among patients with diagnoses of bipolar disorder and HIV infection. METHODS: A retrospective study was conducted of Medicaid claims data (2001-2004) from eight states, focusing on antiretroviral adherence. The unit of analysis was person-month (N=53,971). The average observation period for the 1,687 patients was 32 months. Analyses controlled for several patient characteristics. RESULTS: Patients possessed antiretroviral drugs in 72% of the person-months. When a bipolar medication prescription was filled in the prior month, the rate of antiretroviral possession in the subsequent month was 78%, compared with 65% when bipolar medication was not filled in the prior month (p<.001). Odds of antiretroviral possession were 66% higher in months when patients had a prior-month supply of bipolar medication. CONCLUSIONS: Bipolar medication adherence may improve antiretroviral adherence among patients with bipolar disorder and HIV infection.

Psychiatric diagnosis and antiretroviral adherence among adolescent Medicaid beneficiaries diagnosed with human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome.

Research on adults with human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) has suggested that psychiatric and substance abuse comorbidities are prevalent in this population, and that these may sometimes be associated with use of antiretroviral therapy (ART) and adherence. For adolescents with HIV/AIDS, much less is known about patterns of mental health comorbidity, and even fewer data are available that compare them to socioeconomically comparable youth without HIV/AIDS. Using medical and pharmacy data from 1999 to 2000 Medicaid claims (Medicaid Analytic Extract) from 4 states for beneficiaries aged 12 to 17 years, we identified 833 youth under care for HIV/AIDS meeting study criteria within the HIV/AIDS group, receipt of ART was less likely for youth who had diagnoses of substance abuse, conduct disorders, or emotional disorders than for others. Once ART was initiated, adherence did not significantly differ between adolescents living with a psychiatric condition, and those who were not, with the exception of an association between conduct disorder and lower adherence. Among those with HIV/AIDS, ART use and adherence were more common among youth with higher rates of service use, regardless of psychiatric status. Associations between race and adherence varied by gender: compared with their white counterparts, minority girls had lower, and minority boys had higher adherence.

Substance abuse and hospitalization for mood disorder among Medicaid beneficiaries.

OBJECTIVES: We compared the influence of substance abuse with that of other comorbidities (e.g., anxiety, HIV) among people with mood disorder (N=129,524) to explore risk factors for psychiatric hospitalization and early readmission within 3 months of discharge. METHODS: After linking Medicaid claims data in 5 states (California, Florida, New Jersey, New York, and Texas) to community-level information, we used logistic and Cox regression to examine hospitalization risk factors. RESULTS: Twenty-four percent of beneficiaries with mood disorder were hospitalized. Of these, 24% were rehospitalized after discharge. Those with comorbid substance abuse accounted for 36% of all baseline hospitalizations and half of all readmissions. CONCLUSIONS: Results highlight the need for increased and sustained funding for the treatment of comorbid substance abuse and mood disorder, and for enhanced partnership between mental health and substance abuse professionals.

US patterns of mental health service utilization for transition-age youth and young adults.

This study examines rates of admission and patterns of mental health service use by persons of transition age (16-25 years) in the USA based on the nationally representative 1997 Client/Patient Sample Survey and population data from the US Census Bureau. A precipitous decline in utilization was observed at the age of emancipation: the yearly admission rate for inpatient, outpatient, and residential services was 34 per 1,000 for 16- and 17-year-olds and 18 per 1,000 for 18- and 19-year-olds. Among 20- and 21-year-olds, more were referred from criminal justice and fewer from family or friends and social services, and proportionately more were Medicaid recipients. Targeting resources to enhance shared planning between child and adult systems may facilitate continuity of care for young adult clients who are aging out of child mental health systems, as well as for those who experience their first episodes of mental disorder in early adulthood.

Prevalence and treatment of diagnosed depression among elderly nursing home residents in Ohio.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the prevalence and treatment of diagnosed depression among elderly nursing home residents and determine the resident and facility characteristics associated with diagnosis and treatment. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Documented depression, pharmacotherapy, psychotherapy, sociodemographics, and medical characteristics were obtained from Ohio's Minimum Data Set for 76 735 residents in 921 nursing homes. The data were merged with Online Survey Certification and Reporting System data to study the impact of facility characteristics. Chi-squared statistics were used to test group differences in depression diagnosis and treatment. Multiple logistic regressions were used to examine the prevalence of diagnosed depression, and among those diagnosed, of receiving any treatment. RESULTS: There were 48% of residents who had an active depression diagnosis; among those diagnosed, 23% received no treatment; 74% received antidepressants; 0.5% received psychotherapy; and 2% received both. African Americans, the severely cognitively impaired, and those in government facilities were less likely to be diagnosed. Residents aged 85 and older, African Americans, individuals with severe mental illness, those with severe ADL or cognitive impairment, and individuals living in a facility with 4 or more deficiencies were less likely to receive treatment. CONCLUSION: Significant disparities exist both in diagnosis and treatment of depression among elderly residents. Disadvantaged groups such as African Americans and residents with physical and cognitive impairments are less likely to be diagnosed and treated. Our results indicate that work needs to be done in the nursing home environment to improve the quality of depression care for all residents.

Studying prescription drug use and outcomes with medicaid claims data: strengths, limitations, and strategies.

Medicaid claims and eligibility data, particularly when linked to other sources of patient-level and contextual information, represent a powerful and under-used resource for health services research on the use and outcomes of prescription drugs. However, their effective use poses many methodological and inferential challenges. This article reviews strengths, limitations, challenges, and recommended strategies in using Medicaid data for research on the initiation, continuation, and outcomes of prescription drug therapies. Drawing from published research using Medicaid data by the investigators and other groups, we review several key validity and methodological issues. We discuss strategies for claims-based identification of diagnostic subgroups and procedures, measuring and modeling initiation and persistence of regimens, analysis of treatment disparities, and examination of comorbidity patterns. Based on this review, we discuss "best practices" for appropriate data use and validity checking, approaches to statistical modeling of longitudinal patterns in the presence of typical challenges, and strategies for strengthening the power and potential of Medicaid datasets. Finally, we discuss policy implications, including the potential for the research use of Medicare Part D data and the need for further initiatives to systematically develop and optimally use research datasets that link Medicaid and other sources of clinical and outcome information.

The relationship between organizational factors and resident satisfaction with nursing home care and life.

We examined the relationships between nursing home (NH) resident satisfaction and NH organizational characteristics, while controlling for the effect of resident characteristics within facilities. We used a stratified, random sample of NHs (N = 72) from two states and a prescreened and randomized sample of 1496 residents. Data sources included resident interviews, an administrator survey, the Minimum Data Set (MDS), and the Online Survey, Certification and Reporting System (OSCAR). Using Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) techniques, we found that non-chain affiliation, certified nursing assistant staffing, and provision of a family council had significant positive effects on total resident satisfaction. The presence of a special care unit was associated with lower levels of satisfaction.

Treatment of people with mental illness: a decade-long perspective.

Many believe that managed behavioral health care has been associated with reduced access to care. Data from a variety of sources suggest that access has increased, although patterns of care and locations of treatment have changed. Data from Healthcare for Communities, a nationally representative community survey, show that access to care has not decreased for people with the most serious conditions who were more likely to receive specialty mental health care after 2000. Further, once people enter specialty care, the number of visits appears unrelated to need. The data highlight the urgent need for a greater focus on the quality of care and patient outcomes.

Navigating the disability process: persons with mental disorders applying for and receiving disability benefits.

Persons with mental disorders are less likely to be working and more likely to apply for and receive SSDI and/or SSI benefits than are those without such disorders. Data from the National Health Interview Survey on Disability (NHIS-D) were examined to identify the predictors of SSDI/SSI application and receipt among persons with self-reported mental disorders. Compared with nonapplicants, applicants had higher levels of disability, fewer financial and interpersonal resources, and better access to information about the disability programs. Among applicants, similar factors distinguished recipients from those who did not receive benefits. Navigating the disability process is associated with the extent of impairment, economic and social disadvantage, and linkage to the disability determination process.