High economic inequality is linked to greater moralization.

Throughout the 21st century, economic inequality is predicted to increase as we face new challenges, from changes in the technological landscape to the growing climate crisis. It is crucial we understand how these changes in inequality may affect how people think and behave. We propose that economic inequality threatens the social fabric of society, in turn increasing moralization-that is, the greater tendency to employ or emphasize morality in everyday life-as an attempt to restore order and control. Using longitudinal data from X, formerly known as Twitter, our first study demonstrates that high economic inequality is associated with greater use of moral language online (e.g. the use of words such as "disgust", "hurt", and "respect'). Study 2 then examined data from 41 regions around the world, generally showing that higher inequality has a small association with harsher moral judgments of people's everyday actions. Together these findings demonstrate that economic inequality is linked to the tendency to see the world through a moral lens.

Desensitization to hate speech: Examination using heart rate measurement.

Exposure to hate speech (HS) leads to desensitization of listeners. Yet, most evidence of this process has been obtained using self-report measures. In this paper, we examined desensitization to HS using an unobtrusive, psychophysiological measure. In an experimental electrocardiogram study (N = 56), we observed heart rate (HR) deceleration after reading comments that contained HS. This suggested a substantive psychophysiological reaction of participants to hateful comments. However, such HR deceleration was not observed among participants preexposed to HS. People exposed to hateful comments thus appeared to show different HR responses to HS compared to people who were not previously exposed to such comments. Consequently, not only does frequent exposure to HS influence an individual's beliefs as observed in earlier studies, but it also impacts psychophysiological reactions to derogatory language.

Exposure to hate speech deteriorates neurocognitive mechanisms of the ability to understand others' pain.

The widespread ubiquity of hate speech affects people's attitudes and behavior. Exposure to hate speech can lead to prejudice, dehumanization, and lack of empathy towards members of outgroups. However, the impact of exposure to hate speech on empathy and propensity to attribute mental states to others has never been directly tested empirically. In this fMRI study, we examine the effects of exposure to hate speech on neural mechanisms of empathy towards ingroup (Poles) versus outgroup members (Arabs). Thirty healthy young adults were randomly assigned to 2 groups: hateful and neutral. During the fMRI study, they were initially exposed to hateful or neutral comments and subsequently to narratives depicting Poles and Arabs in pain. Using whole-brain and region of interest analysis, we showed that exposure to derogatory language about migrants attenuates the brain response to someone else's pain in the right temporal parietal junction (rTPJ), irrespective of group membership (Poles or Arabs). Given that rTPJ is associated with processes relevant to perspective-taking, its reduced activity might be related to a decreased propensity to take the psychological perspective of others. This finding suggests that hate speech affects human functioning beyond intergroup relations.

The process of becoming 'we' in an intergroup conflict context: How enhancing intergroup moral similarities leads to common-ingroup identity.

Research on common-ingroup identity has mainly focused on consequences and potential benefits of inclusive social categorizations. However, very little is yet known about processes and conditions that could facilitate such inclusive social categorizations. In this paper, with four studies (N = 582) set in a post-conflict context of Bosnia and Herzegovina and with members of two ethnic groups (Bosniaks and Serbs), we have demonstrated how perceptions of intergroup moral similarity can act as an important precursor of common-ingroup identity at the national level. We report both cross-sectional as well as experimental evidence demonstrating how perceptions of intergroup moral similarity boost common-ingroup identifications in socially relevant context using members of real adversary social groups. Moreover, we show that learning about outgroups' morally admirable behaviours can facilitate inclusive social categorizations.

The distinct associations of ingroup attachment and glorification with responses to the coronavirus pandemic: Evidence from a multilevel investigation in 21 countries.

While public health crises such as the coronavirus pandemic transcend national borders, practical efforts to combat them are often instantiated at the national level. Thus, national group identities may play key roles in shaping compliance with and support for preventative measures (e.g., hygiene and lockdowns). Using data from 25,159 participants across representative samples from 21 nations, we investigated how different modalities of ingroup identification (attachment and glorification) are linked with reactions to the coronavirus pandemic (compliance and support for lockdown restrictions). We also examined the extent to which the associations of attachment and glorification with responses to the coronavirus pandemic are mediated through trust in information about the coronavirus pandemic from scientific and government sources. Multilevel models suggested that attachment, but not glorification, was associated with increased trust in science and compliance with federal COVID-19 guidelines. However, while both attachment and glorification were associated with trust in government and support for lockdown restrictions, glorification was more strongly associated with trust in government information than attachment. These results suggest that both attachment and glorification can be useful for promoting public health, although glorification's role, while potentially stronger, is restricted to pathways through trust in government information.

Social mindfulness predicts concern for nature and immigrants across 36 nations.

People cooperate every day in ways that range from largescale contributions that mitigate climate change to simple actions such as leaving another individual with choice - known as social mindfulness. It is not yet clear whether and how these complex and more simple forms of cooperation relate. Prior work has found that countries with individuals who made more socially mindful choices were linked to a higher country environmental performance - a proxy for complex cooperation. Here we replicated this initial finding in 41 samples around the world, demonstrating the robustness of the association between social mindfulness and environmental performance, and substantially built on it to show this relationship extended to a wide range of complex cooperative indices, tied closely to many current societal issues. We found that greater social mindfulness expressed by an individual was related to living in countries with more social capital, more community participation and reduced prejudice towards immigrants. Our findings speak to the symbiotic relationship between simple and more complex forms of cooperation in societies.

Paradoxical effects of ethnic identification on threat and anxiety during COVID-19 pandemic. A study of ethnic minority and immigrant groups.

Studies based on the "social cure" hypothesis suggest the positive role of strong social identifications for well-being and mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic. Based on the three-factorial model of identification that distinguishes ingroup centrality, ingroup affect, and ingroup ties as separate aspects of group identification, we propose that their impact on COVID-19-related stress and anxiety would be more complex. In a set of three studies carried out among ethnic minorities in Poland (Lemkos, Kashubs, and Silesians) and a study of a large immigrant group (Ukrainians in Poland), we found that higher levels of ingroup centrality generate more COVID-19-related threats and higher levels of anxiety, whereas ingroup ties tend to reduce anxiety during the pandemic. Based on this evidence we propose that the more exclusive aspects of identification (ingroup centrality) pose a risk to mental health during the time of the pandemic, whereas the more binding ones (ingroup ties) serve as a true "social cure." (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Conspiracy beliefs as an adaptation to historical trauma.

Conspiracy beliefs are often viewed as a form of psychopathology, closely linked to anxiety, paranoia, and maladaptive traits. However, recent research has brought attention to adaptive and functional aspects of conspiracy theories. This article presents a framework for understanding conspiracy beliefs as a paradoxical adaptation to historical trauma. There is vast evidence that three essential aspects of historical trauma (loss of personal and collective control, status devaluation, and victimhood) constitute the key antecedents of conspiracy beliefs. Although conspiracy theories might be adaptive in times of shared trauma (e.g., war, colonization), they become maladaptive in times of peace and prosperity. The popularity of conspiracy theories in historically traumatized societies threatens individuals' health and well-being, social trust, cohesiveness, and intergroup harmony.

Trust in scientific information mediates associations between conservatism and coronavirus responses in the U.S., but few other nations.

U.S.-based research suggests conservatism is linked with less concern about contracting coronavirus and less preventative behaviors to avoid infection. Here, we investigate whether these tendencies are partly attributable to distrust in scientific information, and evaluate whether they generalize outside the U.S., using public data and recruited representative samples across three studies (Ntotal = 34,710). In Studies 1 and 2, we examine these relationships in the U.S., yielding converging evidence for a sequential indirect effect of conservatism on compliance through scientific (dis)trust and infection concern. In Study 3, we compare these relationships across 19 distinct countries. Although the relationships between trust in scientific information about the coronavirus, concern about coronavirus infection, and compliance are consistent cross-nationally, the relationships between conservatism and trust in scientific information are not. These relationships are strongest in North America. Consequently, the indirect effects observed in Studies 1-2 only replicate in North America (the U.S. and Canada) and in Indonesia. Study 3 also found parallel direct and indirect effects on support for lockdown restrictions. These associations suggest not only that relationships between conservatism and compliance are not universal, but localized to particular countries where conservatism is more strongly related to trust in scientific information about the coronavirus pandemic.

Perceiving societal pressure to be happy is linked to poor well-being, especially in happy nations.

Happiness is a valuable experience, and societies want their citizens to be happy. Although this societal commitment seems laudable, overly emphasizing positivity (versus negativity) may create an unattainable emotion norm that ironically compromises individual well-being. In this multi-national study (40 countries; 7443 participants), we investigate how societal pressure to be happy and not sad predicts emotional, cognitive and clinical indicators of well-being around the world, and examine how these relations differ as a function of countries' national happiness levels (collected from the World Happiness Report). Although detrimental well-being associations manifest for an average country, the strength of these relations varies across countries. People's felt societal pressure to be happy and not sad is particularly linked to poor well-being in countries with a higher World Happiness Index. Although the cross-sectional nature of our work prohibits causal conclusions, our findings highlight the correlational link between social emotion valuation and individual well-being, and suggest that high national happiness levels may have downsides for some.

Psychological toll of hate speech: The role of acculturation stress in the effects of exposure to ethnic slurs on mental health among Ukrainian immigrants in Poland.

[Correction Notice: An Erratum for this article was reported online in Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology on Jul 27 2023 (see record 2023-95267-001). In the original article, , the following information about the funding of data collection was missing from the second paragraph of the Participants section: "The data collection process was supported by a Foundation for Polish Science TEAM grant ("Language as a Cure: Linguistic Vitality as a Tool for Psychological Well-Being, Health, and Economic Sustainability") cofinanced by the European Union under the European Regional Development Fund, led by Michal Bilewicz and Justyna Olko." In addition, there were errors in the correlations in Table 1. All versions of this article have been corrected.] Objectives: Exposure to hate speech can have serious consequences for the mental health of immigrants and minority groups. However, not much is known about the process by which this effect takes place and to what extent it is independent of the effects of other forms of discrimination on health. The present study aimed to investigate whether acculturation stress mediates the relationship between exposure to hate speech and mental health and whether the effect would hold after controlling for experienced discrimination. METHOD: An online survey was conducted among Ukrainian immigrants living in Poland (N = 726) in order to investigate the relation between exposure to hate speech, acculturation stress, and mental health. Mediation analyses were used to test whether exposure to hateful language predicts posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression symptoms and whether these effects are mediated by acculturation stress while controlling for experiences of other forms of discrimination. RESULTS: Exposure to hate speech predicted PTSD and depression symptoms. Both effects were mediated by acculturation stress and were significant after controlling for experienced discrimination. CONCLUSIONS: The study provides evidence for the existence of a relation between exposure to hate speech among migrants and mental health problems. The study also provides support for a potential mechanism of this effect: acculturation stress and evidence for the fact that the effect holds over and above the effect of discrimination. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Conspiracy mentality and political orientation across 26 countries.

People differ in their general tendency to endorse conspiracy theories (that is, conspiracy mentality). Previous research yielded inconsistent findings on the relationship between conspiracy mentality and political orientation, showing a greater conspiracy mentality either among the political right (a linear relation) or amongst both the left and right extremes (a curvilinear relation). We revisited this relationship across two studies spanning 26 countries (combined N = 104,253) and found overall evidence for both linear and quadratic relations, albeit small and heterogeneous across countries. We also observed stronger support for conspiracy mentality among voters of opposition parties (that is, those deprived of political control). Nonetheless, the quadratic effect of political orientation remained significant when adjusting for political control deprivation. We conclude that conspiracy mentality is associated with extreme left- and especially extreme right-wing beliefs, and that this non-linear relation may be strengthened by, but is not reducible to, deprivation of political control.

Need satisfaction in intergroup contact: A multinational study of pathways toward social change.

What role does intergroup contact play in promoting support for social change toward greater social equality? Drawing on the needs-based model of reconciliation, we theorized that when inequality between groups is perceived as illegitimate, disadvantaged group members will experience a need for empowerment and advantaged group members a need for acceptance. When intergroup contact satisfies each group's needs, it should result in more mutual support for social change. Using four sets of survey data collected through the Zurich Intergroup Project in 23 countries, we tested several preregistered predictions, derived from the above reasoning, across a large variety of operationalizations. Two studies of disadvantaged groups (Ns = 689 ethnic minority members in Study 1 and 3,382 sexual/gender minorities in Study 2) support the hypothesis that, after accounting for the effects of intergroup contact and perceived illegitimacy, satisfying the need for empowerment (but not acceptance) during contact is positively related to support for social change. Two studies with advantaged groups (Ns = 2,937 ethnic majority members in Study 3 and 4,203 cis-heterosexual individuals in Study 4) showed that, after accounting for illegitimacy and intergroup contact, satisfying the need for acceptance (but also empowerment) is positively related to support for social change. Overall, findings suggest that intergroup contact is compatible with efforts to promote social change when group-specific needs are met. Thus, to encourage support for social change among both disadvantaged and advantaged group members, it is essential that, besides promoting mutual acceptance, intergroup contact interventions also give voice to and empower members of disadvantaged groups. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Group identification attenuates the effect of historical trauma on mental health: A study of Iraqi Kurds.

Kurds have a long history of victimization and struggle for even the most basic rights. This is reflected in a widely shared belief, according to which they have "no friends but the mountains." Such difficult history may have ongoing negative impact on mental health of present-day Kurds. This article investigates the relations between cognitive availability of historical trauma, historical trauma symptoms, and negative mental health outcomes in a sample of young Kurds who live in the Region of Kurdistan in Iraq. We also examined the potential protective role of strong identification as members of a national minority (Iraqi Kurds) and as members of an ethnic group (Kurdish people in general). The results showed that tragic group history is significantly related to negative mental health outcomes among young Iraqi Kurds. However, strong identification with other Iraqi Kurds (but not with Kurds in general) had an attenuating effect on the link between historical trauma and present-day negative mental health outcomes. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Cleansing and separating: From modern agriculture and genocide to post-separation era.

We propose that the metaphor of cleansing was a by-product of modernization processes. Based on cultural and historical evidence, we claim that the activation of cleansing metaphor triggered positive associations in times when separation was a positively regarded element of human culture and agriculture, but it should not exert the same effect in times when separation became culturally anachronistic.

Artificial intelligence against hate: Intervention reducing verbal aggression in the social network environment.

This article presents a quasi-experimental intervention study designed to reduce the level of verbal aggression on a social networking service (Reddit). The interventions were based on three psychological mechanisms: induction of a descriptive norm, induction of a prescriptive norm, and empathy induction. Each intervention was generated using a communicating bot. Participants exposed to these interventions were compared with a control group that received no intervention. The bot-generated normative communications (both the ones priming descriptive and the ones priming prescriptive norms), as well as the empathizing intervention, reduced the proportion of verbal aggression posted by Reddit accounts. All three interventions proved effective in reducing verbal violence when compared with the control condition.

Measurement invariance of the moral vitalism scale across 28 cultural groups.

Moral vitalism refers to a tendency to view good and evil as actual forces that can influence people and events. The Moral Vitalism Scale had been designed to assess moral vitalism in a brief survey form. Previous studies established the reliability and validity of the scale in US-American and Australian samples. In this study, the cross-cultural comparability of the scale was tested across 28 different cultural groups worldwide through measurement invariance tests. A series of exact invariance tests marginally supported partial metric invariance, however, an approximate invariance approach provided evidence of partial scalar invariance for a 5-item measure. The established level of measurement invariance allows for comparisons of latent means across cultures. We conclude that the brief measure of moral vitalism is invariant across 28 cultures and can be used to estimate levels of moral vitalism with the same precision across very different cultural settings.

Author Correction: A large-scale test of the link between intergroup contact and support for social change.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Superficial ingroup love? Collective narcissism predicts ingroup image defense, outgroup prejudice, and lower ingroup loyalty.

We examined the associations between the need for personal control, different types of ingroup commitment, and group-related outcomes: (1) defensive responses to ingroup criticism, (2) ingroup disloyalty, and (3) outgroup attitudes. We assumed that collective narcissism (i.e., a belief in ingroup's greatness which is contingent on external validation and stems from frustrated individual needs) should be concerned with defending the ingroup image and derogating outgroups, but not necessarily with being loyal to the ingroup. Secure ingroup identification (i.e., a confidently held ingroup evaluation, which stems from satisfied needs), in contrast, should predict greater ingroup loyalty and positive outgroup attitudes. We expected these effects to be especially strong once we account for the overlap between collective narcissism and group-level self-investment - a key component of ingroup identification. In a nationally representative sample of Polish adults (n = 1,007), collective narcissism (net of group-level self-investment) mediated between low personal control and ingroup image defense, lower group loyalty, and less positive outgroup attitudes. Secure ingroup identification (group-level self-investment net of collective narcissism) mediated between high personal control and ingroup loyalty and positive outgroup attitudes. It was not associated with ingroup image defense. Implications for understanding the role of identification in inter- and intra-group relations are discussed.